with links to Rouse's First Greek Reader "A Greek Boy"
transcribed from pdf, marked up for html/css, furnished with audio, Greek Boy translated into English by Eber P. (full credits here)
Introduction
Rouse's Natural Approach to learning classical Greek
About a hundred years ago, during summer break, a classics teacher named William Rouse developed a lively, conversational method for learning Ancient Greek, which was back then still a requirement in British High schools. Before that summer, he was saddened and frustrated by how bored his 14 year old introductory students were using the traditional dry and difficult method of memorizing tables and applying them to translate tricky artificial and unnatural Greek sentences into English. But Rouse's students that fall and ever afterwards loved his new method and learned much better from it. Here is a link to the original pdf text. Read the introduction of it to know more about its history and success.
The "magic" to the method is copious amounts of reading in interesting Greek closely modelled from the original texts, gradually increasing in complexity in step with the grammar material. Here is the link to Rouse's accompanying reader, A Greek Boy. Greek methods currently in use teach much grammar but exercise relatively little real work in the language. Rouse's method completely turns that on its head: you are constantly doing Greek by reading, listening, speaking and writing it, not just reading about it and then trying to "solve" a few hard sentence problems. With a method like Rouse's, Greek is learned very naturally and gradually. There are faster ways to learn Greek, but they more serve the needs of those who have a limited time and thus are motivated to memorize vocab and tables of morphology, and who have a knack for languages in general, like university students taking an elective language semester in college. Methods like Rouse's work well for all learners, even children. And after reading, writing, listening and speaking real Greek for a year, you will find that you can read Plato in the original Greek with no special training. This is rarely the case using other methods, whose students after a year of success with their sentence translation exercises are surprised that reading real Greek "in the wild" still remains quite problematic for lack of practicing the real thing.
The progression of material in this Rouse text has not been changed so that the accompanying readings in Greek Boy can be followed. The grammatical terminology has been updated however, and numerous exercises and some explanations have been added to make up for what the modern learner 100 years later no longer knows (i.e. even 14 year old school-children in 1900 would have already learned French and Latin before starting Greek). Also at your disposal is audio (using the Erasmus restored classical pronunciation), pictures, etymologies, and a completely linked text to support you.
Although originally conceived in a classroom setting led by a teacher fluent in Greek, this modern presentation leverages all the technology of the web to allow any teacher with some knowledge of Greek to lead a class, or even for motivated autodidacts to learn Greek on their own, easily and enjoyably.
(Enable the glossary for this)
Enjoy this paedagogical classic to learn Classical Attic Greek. Email your comments about it to Cloviscorp.
NOTES ON PRONUNCIATION. -- g before g, k, ks is sounded 'ng'.
The aspirates th, ph, kh, were pronounced as two distinct sounds combined: as in anthill *, uphold, lackhose. They may, however, be pronounced like the English th, f, ch, if the true sounds are found to be too difficult.
u (=Fr. u) should not be sounded oo, or its confused with ou.
QUANTITY must be strictly observed. The voice should be prolonged on a long vowel twice as long as on a short vowel (like crotchet and quaver). This should be carefully practiced while time is beaten as in music. This has nothing to do with accent, or stress.
DOUBLE CONSONANTS are pronounced by dwelling upon the sound (as in Italian or German): practice this in English tub-boat, black-cat, midday, full-liberty, home-made, ten-nights, stop-press, fur-rug, this-sort, that-time.
'th' is still so pronounced in the island of Astypalaea
DIPHTHONGS:
ai
pronounced as in aisle
ei
pronounced as two short sounds together, ey
oi
pronounced as oi in foil
ui
pronounced as French oui
au
pronounced as ow in cow
eue^u
pronounced as e + u sounds together
ou
pronounced as oo in foal (o+u) or fool
The so-called improper diphthongs, in which a long a^, e^, o^ is followed by i, were written a^i, e^i, o^i and pronounced as written. After the long vowel, however the iota was barely if at all audible, at the end of the classical period they were probably silent. In modern books they are generally written a^i e^i o^, with 'iota subscript', and pronounced a^ e^ o^ simply.
BREATHINGS.--A vowel at the beginning of a word has the 'rough breathing' if aspired, the 'smooth breathing' if not. The rough breathing was originally represented by E^ (afterwards used as a vowel), but in quick writting-hand this came to be written like a comma reversed (h). Thus `a/lpha 'alpha', ho/s 'hos'.
The rough breathing is always written over initial r: as rho^/\.
ACCENT:--Every Greek word, except the six proclitics, has an accent,
which originally marked the raising of the tone of voice, not stress as in English, on one of the last three syllables of a word.
The names of the important (last-three) syllables of a word are, from right to left:
ultima, penultima, and antepenultima
It is possible with careful practice from the first,
to vary the pitch on these syllables (as little stress as possible being used) without affecting the length of the vowel sound.
General Rules.--
The acute accent (/) must fall on one of the last three syllables.
If the ultima have a long vowel, the antepenult cannot have any accent.
The circumflex (/\) denotes a falling of tone on its long vowel (or diphthong).
(This falling sound can be heard in the English expression of surprise on "no!".)
The circumflex can only appear on a long vowel or diphthong in one of the last two syllables.
If it appears on the penult, the ultima must have a short vowel.
The grave accent (\) is only seen on the ultima, and causes no raised pitch.
In lexical (dictionary) forms it indicates that the word is an enclitic (see below).
In normal connected reading and speech, it marks the "cancellation" of an ultima acute accent.
In any group of words (phrases, clauses), all acutes on ultimas change to grave except the last one.
ENCLITICS AND PROCLITICS
A few words are only used in combination with others which go before them. These have no accent, are are called enclitics. They generally throw their accent back upon the last syllable of the word before.
A few other words, standing first in their phrase, have no accent; these are called proclitics (here are three: `ei, 'if ', `eis 'into', `en 'in').
N.B.--Interrogatives always have the acute accent. Indefinites are enclitic, and generally have none.
The punctuation marks are (,) comma, (:) colon, (.) full stop, (?) question mark.
Editors note: Athenian Alpha and Eta
There were a few Greek dialects in the ancient world, as is to be expected. The dialect used in most literature is the Athenian one, spoken and written in the capital city, Athens, commonly called "Attic". Another dialect was the Ionian dialect in which one poet (the great and famous Homer) wrote all of his works. Both Attic and Ionian dialects are studied by students of Greek, but most people now begin by learning the Attic dialect.
Unfortunately, the Attic dialect had one or two peculiarities which students must come to terms with from the very beginning.
One of which was its treatment of long alpha. Athenians tended to pronounce long alpha as eta. Only when the alpha sound came after rho, epsilon, or iota, did they pronounce it as long alpha.
Compare the American pronunciation of 'a' in words like 'grass', 'half' and 'sand' to their British pronunciations.
You will notice that in these words containing a drawn out 'a' sound, the Americans, like the Athenians, pronounce eta where the British use long alpha.
Moreover, if you listen to an American say "malaria" , the second 'a' has a sound like eta, but not the 'a' after i! Just like the Athenians, Americans pronounce the a sound after r, e, and i always as 'ah'.
So you see that the Attic dialect's treatment of 'a' sounds is almost identical to the American dialect. But there is an important difference. Americans use the same letter 'a' for both sounds, but Athenians wrote exactly as they spoke, and since they had letters each for sound, they wrote the letter that they were actually saying. You will constantly see eta in the place of long alpha in words written in the Attic dialect, and you must know the difference between a "real eta" and an "long alpha eta".
EXERCISE - On the Alphabet (To be learned by heart in metrical rhythm *)
* - When reading connected text, the consonants shift to create syllables. And the regular rhythm of long and short syllables (syllables have lengths related to the vowels in them) is called meter. Ancient poetry is characterized by stanzas of lines all adhering to a prevailing meter.
In the ancient alphabet poem, the prevailing (i.e. except for the last partial line) meter is the iambos, which is short-syllable + long-syllable.
You will learn more about syllables and meter in the coming chapters.
be^/\ta + `a/lpha = ba ,
be^/\ta + `ou/\ = bo ,
be^/\ta + `ei/\ = be ,
be^/\ta + hu^/\ = bu ,
be^/\ta + `e^/\ta = be^ ,
be^/\ta + `o^/\ = bo^ ,
be^/\ta + `io^/\ta = bi
be^/\ta + `a/lpha + `io^/\ta = bai ,
be^/\ta + `ei/\ + `io^/\ta = bei ,
etc
Make a similar exercise with the other consonants.
These should be read aloud.
EXERCISE - Pronunciation of words
First practice listening to these words. Then do the following exercises where you click the English word to hear it in Greek.
1. Exercises with the proclitics (review rough and smooth breathing)
Write the Greek word on a piece of paper what you hear and compare with the answers afterwards.
hohe^hoihai`en`ek`ou`eiho^s
2. Exercises of simple words (review acute accent). All vowels are short.
Write on a piece of paper the Greek word that you hear and compare with the answers afterwards.
peri/po/tenu/ksti/sdia/me/n
3. Exercise to mix short vowels with long vowels and diphthongs
Write on a piece of paper the Greek word that you hear and compare with the answers afterwards.
psukhe^/`e/kheinhau/te^`ego^/le/gein`oude/kai/
4. Exercise of vowel rhythm.
Each of the 6 lines has two words with the same vowel rhythm. Listen, repeat and identify the rhythm (e.g. short short long)
short short longgignesthai lambaneinshort long long`akouein heautoushort long short`ekeinos `entauthalong short shorthe^mera `aitialong short longpoieein heuriskeinlong long shorttoioutos se^meion
5. Exercise of circumflexes
Imitate the long sliding down of each circumflex. Identify the long vowel or diphthong. Write the Greek word.
6. Exercise of proclitics
Repeat and write the phrases.
`en `oiki/a^ihe^ ge^/\ho me/n`ei de/
7. Exercise of enclitics
Repeat and write the Greek phrases.
geo^rgo/s tis`e/moi geti/ potehoi/\o/s te
8. Exercise of pitch and rhythm in longer phrases (review acute accent changing to grave - if a word has no audible accent and is not a proclitic, mark ultima with a grave accent)
Repeat and write the Greek phrases.
The exercises below work on difficult pronunciation problems in Ancient Greek. Feel free to come back to these exercises as you progress through the chapters. If you want to pronounce Ancient Greek perfectly, keep practicing until you are comfortable.
Not accenting a unaccented long vowel, especially a long penult. Keeping short vowels short, especially accented ultimas.
Sliding on circumflex, but NOT sliding on a long acute.
Double consonants.
Chapter II
`ou 'not' (before vowels unaspirated `ouk and aspirated `oukh), the negative of plain denial (categorical negative).
me^/ 'not', used in prohibitions, conditions, and abstract ideas. Thus used alone, `ou/ would mean 'no', and me^/ 'don't'.
N.B. -- The following table of DETERMINANTS is not to be learnt, but for reference as required.
Direct Question
Indirect
Relative
Indefinite
who
ti/s
ho/stis
ho/s
ti\s,some
where
pou/\
ho/pou
hou/\
pou\,some where
whence
pothe/n
hopo/then
ho/then
po/then,some-whence
whither
poi/\
ho/poi
hoi/\
poi\,some-whither
when
po/te
hopo/te
ho/te
pote\,some time
how
po^/\s
ho/po^s
ho^s
po^\s,somehow
how great/much
po/sos
hopo/sos
ho/sos
poso\s,some size
Editors's note: Determinant translation
For those unused to the terminology in the table above, Here are some examples of usage for the first and last row:
Whoti/s is he?
I know whohosti/s he is.
He is the man, whoho/s taught me Greek.
He is someoneti\s from Athens.
How muchpo/sos is that?
I know how muchho/posos that is.
It is as much asho/sos this is.
It is some amountposo\s more than $2.
Rule of Thumb: Since the first three columns translate the same in English, use the direct when the question word begins the sentence, use the indirect after verbs, and the relative after nouns.
`entha/de,here
`ekei/\,there
kai/,and
`enthe/nde,hence
`ekei/\then,thence
`alla/,but
deu/\ro,hither
`ekei/\se,thither
`o^/\,O
`eu/\,well
nu^/\n,now
`ei,if
kako^/\s,badly
to/te,then
`epei/,since
`a^/\ra, -ne (the question mark, placed first in a clause).
`a^/\r' `ou, nonne (the negative question, expecting the answer 'yes')
Inflection of nouns and adjectives in Greek: FIRST and SECOND DECLENSION.
There are three numbers in Greek: Singular, Dual*, and Plural.
There are three genders: Masculine (for male beings and "male things", like "word"), Feminine (for female beings and "female things" like "table"), and Neuter (small/cute beings and things).
Nouns can have only one gender (have the forms of three columns of one gender color only). If they have a stem ending in alpha they are said to be of the FIRST DECLENSION; if a noun stem ends in omikron, it belongs to the SECOND DECLENSION.
Adjectives use both stems to have forms in all genders. The reason for this will be made clear in the exercises.
There are five cases in Greek whose names and usages are shown in the table below.
* The dual number is used when we speak of a pair of things, or of two things closely connected.
Note as you commit the table to memory:
learn long and short versions of the endings i and s. e.g. ^i is dative singular; but i is masc/fem nom/voc plural, etc.
that two of the signals (e and a) replace the stem vowel o
that long a^ of the feminine stem 1) changes to eta in the singular, and 2) shortens in the plural
accent for nouns and adjectives tries to stay on the same syllable: here the final acute in N V A changes to final circumflex in G D
* certain forms are reused in different cases, ex: the dual number is the same in nom, voc and acc cases. other forms are the same even in different genders, ex. the genitive plural is always the same in all genders. † Iota after a long vowel is not pronounced, and for that reason is often written small underneath: kalo^i/\ and kale^i/\
Determinants are special, common adjectives that lack the neuter nominative/accusative singular -n signal used in first and second declension adjectives and lack forms for comparative and superlative.
Most importantly, because of their meanings, they cannot be used predicatively.
Below is the most common determinant, the Definite Article "the" (it lacks the vocative because you never use the article when addressing someone).
Four of the nominative forms lost both the initial tau and the accent.
These doubly-weakened words must always be followed by another word and pronounced along with it.
A word which always has no accent of its own and can only bind with the following word in pronunciation is called a proclitic.
The article was originally a demonstrative, and it keeps this sense in certain phrases: as ho me/n 'this', ho de/ 'that' (which are used as conjunctional pronouns to introduce a clause), or when prefixed to an adverb or adverbial phrase, as hoi/ to/te 'those who lived then'.
And here is the next most common determinant, the Relative pronoun "who/which" (it also lacks the vocative):
In its simplest form a noun phrase is exactly one noun (or pronoun).
But noun phrases can also have accompanying determinants/adjectives as well,
all functioning together as one group.
All adjectives and determinants in the noun phrase must agree with the noun in gender, number and case --
this is called the rule of adjective concord.
Although word order is relatively free in Greek, inside a noun phrase there are rules for position of the words.
If an adjective is used with the article in the noun phrase,
then the adjective must be used after the article -- usually between the article and the noun
(a special word order has the adjective after a repeated article).
This fixed position of the adjective in the noun phrase is called the attributive position.
EXERCISE - Noun phrases
Practice forming simple noun phrases starting with an optional article, optional adjective in attributive position, and ending with a required noun, all in adjective concord (same gender, number, and case).
Using this small list of adjective and nouns, practice forming all possible noun phrases in the nominative case, singular and plural.
Translate them into English.
With all possible combinations, you should have 20 for each noun, for a total of 60.
There are some adjectives with an acute on the ultima that will change to a grave accent.
Adjectives
`agatho/s
kako/s
kalo/s
ne/os, ne/a^, ne/on
Nouns
bi/blos
dida/skalos
ka/lamos
bi/blos - a book bi/bloi - books he^ bi/blos - the book hai bi/bloi - the books `agathe^\ bi/blos - a good book `agathai\ bi/bloi - good books he^ `agathe^\ bi/blos - the good book hai `agathai\ bi/bloi - the good books kake^\ bi/blos - a bad book kakai\ bi/bloi - bad books he^ kake^\ bi/blos - the bad book hai kakai\ bi/bloi - the bad books kale^\ bi/blos - a good book kalai\ bi/bloi - good books he^ kale^\ bi/blos - the good book hai kalai\ bi/bloi - the good books nea^\ bi/blos - a new book neai\ bi/bloi - new books he^ nea^\ bi/blos - the new book hai neai\ bi/bloi - the new books dida/skalos - a teacher dida/skaloi - teachers ho dida/skalos - the teacher hoi dida/skaloi - the teachers `agatho\s dida/skalos - a good teacher `agathoi\ dida/skaloi - good teachers ho `agatho\s dida/skalos - the good teacher hoi `agathoi\ dida/skaloi - the good teachers kako\s dida/skalos - a bad teacher kakoi\ dida/skaloi - bad teachers ho kako\s dida/skalos - the bad teacher hoi kakoi\ dida/skaloi - the bad teachers kalo\s dida/skalos - a good teacher kaloi\ dida/skaloi - good teachers ho kalo\s dida/skalos - the good teacher hoi kaloi\ dida/skaloi - the good teachers neo\s dida/skalos - a young teacher neoi\ dida/skaloi - young teachers ho neo\s dida/skalos - the young teacher hoi neoi\ dida/skaloi - the young teachers ka/lamos - a pen ka/lamoi - pens ho ka/lamos - the pen hoi ka/lamoi - the pens `agatho\s ka/lamos - a good pen `agathoi\ ka/lamoi - good pens ho `agatho\s ka/lamos - the good pen hoi `agathoi\ ka/lamoi - the good pens kako\s ka/lamos - a bad pen kakoi\ ka/lamoi - bad pens ho kako\s ka/lamos - the bad pen hoi kakoi\ ka/lamoi - the bad pens kalo\s ka/lamos - a good pen kaloi\ ka/lamoi - good pens ho kalo\s ka/lamos - the good pen hoi kaloi\ ka/lamoi - the good pens neo\s ka/lamos - a new pen neoi\ ka/lamoi - new pens ho neo\s ka/lamos - the new pen hoi neoi\ ka/lamoi - the new pens
THE VERB: PRESENT IMPERFECTIVE INDICATIVE ACTIVE
nr. pers.
form and meaning
form and meaning
form and meaning
pronoun and ending
S.1.
lu^/-o^, I undo, untie
poie/-o^, I do
de^lo/-o^, I declare
`ego^/ -- -o^
2.
lu^/-eis, thou undost, untiest
poie/-eis, thou doest
de^lo/-eis, thou declarest
su/ -- -eis
3.
lu^/-ei he/she/it undoes, unties
poie/-ei, he/she/it does
de^lo/-ei, he/she/it declares
`auto/s -- -ei
Du.2.
lu^/-eton, ye both undo, untie
poie/-eton, ye both do
de^lo/-eton, ye both declare
hu^mei/\s -- -eton
3.
lu^/-eton, they both undo, untie
poie/-eton, they both do
de^lo/-eton, they both declare
`autoi/ -- -eton
P.1.
lu^/-omen, we undo, untie
poie/-omen, we do
de^lo/-omen, we declare
he^mei/\s -- -omen
2.
lu^/-ete, ye undo, untie
poie/-ete, ye do
de^lo/-ete, ye declare
hu^mei/\s -- -ete
3.
lu^/-ousi(n) they undo, untie
poie/-ousi(n), they do
de^lo/-ousi(n), they declare
`autoi/ -- -ousi(n)
The 3rd plur.-n when the next word begins in a vowel, or before punctuation.
EXERCISE - Clauses.
In its simplest form, a clause is a finite verb with an implicit subject taken from its ending.
A clause can be augmented with an explicit subject noun phrase in the nominative case and in the same number as the finite verb (subject-verb concord).
Moreover, depending on the transitivity of the verb, the clause can have an optional noun phrase (in the correct case) as object or complement.
Create clauses with explicit subjects, verbs that agree with these subjects, and direct objects where it makes sense.
Make sure that final ultima change to grave when another word follows.
For this exercise, we are using S-V-O word-order, but this is not fixed as in English.
In the Greek clause, the object or complement can come first of you wish to emphasize that (e.g. O-V-S),
and the verb can come either first or last (S-O-V is a quite common pattern).
Finally, translate your simple clauses.
(using the vocabulary)
2.
ti/ `e/kheis, `o^/\ paidi/on?`akoe^\n `e/kho^, `o^/\ dida/skale. kai\ ti/ poie/eis `akoe^i/\?`akou/o^. po^/\s `akou/eis, `o^/\ paidi/on?`eu/\ `akou/o^, kako^/\s `akou/o^. `ei `eu/\ `akou/eis, poi/an `akoe^\n `e/kheis?`ei `eu/\ `akou/o^, kale^\n `e/kho^ `akoe^/n. `ei kako^/\s `akou/eis, ... etc.
So with pho^ne^/, `ophthalmo/s, bibli/on, ka/lamos, e.g.:
ti/ `a/llo `e/kheis?pho^ne^\n `e/kho^ ...etc.
Do the same exercise in the dual, singling out two persons; and in the plural, as --
ti/ `e/kheton, `o^/\ paidi/o^? ti/ `e/khete, `o^/\ paidi/a? `e/khomen bibli/a, etc.
The teacher may devise other varieties for himself.
The Conversation Lesson is to be said wholly in Greek, and the book to be closed on revision.
THEME--
a) A Man's Senses, and what He does with them.
b) A Boy's Book and Pen, and what he does with them.
Note how the nominative sing. and pl. has been influenced in form by the article.
Another word for 'this' is ho/de, he^/de, to/de, declined like the article with-de affixed.
-a^ is does not change to-e^ after e,i, or r (see here), as:
thu/ra^
thu/ra^n
thu/ra^s, etc.
`oiki/a
`oiki/a^n
`oiki/a^s, etc.
Editors's note: More on Noun phrases.
As noted before, word order is not free within the noun phrase. Adjectives need to be in attributive position, However, demonstratives, even though they are attribute to the noun in the phrase, must not be in attributive position.
A non-attributively positioned adjective cannot be in a noun phrase. It must have another function in the clause, usually a complement with an implicit copula, e.g. the apparent noun phrase [ sopho\s ho `ane^/r ] is actually [ ho `ane^/r ], and the adjective is a complement of an implicit copula: sopho\s (`esti) [ ho `ane^/r ]
However, an attributively positioned demonstrative is normally considered an error. Demonstratives need to be in a non-attributive position: [ hou/\tos ho `ane^/r ] correctly means "this man".
Finally, a noun phrase, if it contains a determinant (this includes the article and demonstratives) and/or an adjective, can actually lack the required noun. In this case, the adjective or determinant takes on a noun usage, as in "the poor" or "the young and the restless". To translate such a phrase, supply the antecedent from the preceding clause for the missing noun. If no such antecedent is available, or if using it sounds repetitive, then use either the generic "one(s)" for the missing noun or a generic noun according to the gender and number ("man/men", "woman/women", "thing/things"), e.g. [ ta\ ne/a ] means "the new (ones)", "the new (things)", hence it is how you saw "the news" in Greek.
The well-known Greek proverb -- khalepa\ ta\ kala/ -- exemplifies much of the above. Since the adjective is not in attributive position we in fact have khalepa\ (`esti) ta\ kala/ where the noun phrase is only ta\-kala/, functioning as the subject since khalepa\ is the complement adjective.
Furthermore, since that noun phrase lacks a noun yet has the determinant, we translate it as "the beautiful/noble (things)" because we have no antecedent, only an isolated sentence. This pithy proverb therefore means "The beautiful things are hard" (i.e. to learn/understand/etc)
The Imperfective Infinitive is formed from the verb stem by adding-ein:
lu/-ein
IMPERFECTIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT TENSE OF `ei/\nai, 'to be'
Sing.
Dual
Plur.
1.`eimi\
1.`esme\n
2.`ei/\
2.`esto\n
2.`este\
3.`esti\(n)
3.`esto\n
3.`eisi\(n)
All these forms, but `ei/\, are enclitic, except when emphatic in sense; in which case they are put first,
and the accent of the 3rd person sing. is `e/sti(n).
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Change-os to-o/teros-o/tatos when the syllable before
-os contains a long vowel or ends in two consonants-o^/steros,
-o^/tatos if it has a short vowel followed by on consonant:-
mi^kro/s
mi^kro/teros
mi^kro/tatos
pi^kro/s
pi^kro/teros
pi^kro/tatos
but
sopho/s
sopho^/teros
sopho^/tatos
Adverbs are formed from adjectives in-os (i.e. in the positive degree) by changing the ending of the genitive singular masculine to-o^s:
kalo/s, gen. kalou/\, adv. kalo^/\s.
Superlative adverbs the neuter plural: sopho^/\s, sopho^/teros, sopho^/tata.
SYNTAX RULE, 2. -A neuter plural subj. has verb in sing.
SYNTAX RULE, 3. -Demostrative pronouns need the article to be used with their noun:
hou/\tos ho `a/nthro^pos or ho `a/nthro^pos hou/\tos 'this' man.
SYNTAX RULE, 4. -The article may also be used with the infinitive mood, and with any adverbial expression,
as:- to\ le/gein 'saying', tou/\ le/gein 'of saying', hoi pa/lai 'the ancients',ho `en te^i/\ `oiki/a^i 'the man in the house'.
The form `eme/,`emou/\,`emoi/,se/,sou/\,soi/ are emphatic.
`auto/s, 'self'
M.
F.
N.
N.
`auto/s
`aute^/
`auto/
A.
`auto/n
`aute^/n
`auto/
G.
`autou/\
`aute^/\s
`autou/\,
etc. like kalo/s.
The oblique case of this are used for the Third Personal Pronoun, as: lu/o^ `auto/n 'I untie/free him';
with the article it means 'the same'-
ho `auto/s,he^ `aute^/,to\ `auto/, or t`auto/s,
`aute^/,t`auto/(n)
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN
ti/s, 'who','what'
M.F.
N.
M.F.N.
M.F.
N.
Sing N.
ti/s
ti/
Dual ti/ne
Plur. ti/nes
ti/na
A.
ti/na
ti/
ti/nas
ti/na
G.
ti/nos
ti/noin
ti/no^n
D.
ti/ni
ti/si(n)
The same forms, accented on the last syllable, or without accent, are used for the indefinite 'some','any';
except that the neuter plural is `a/tta or ti/na.
CARDINALS
hei/\s, 'one'
M.
F.
N.
Sing. N.
hei/\s
mi/a
he/n
A.
he/na
mi/an
he/n
G.
heno/s
mia^/\s
heno/s
D.
heni/
mia^i/\
heni/
du/o 'two'
M.F.N.
N.V.A.
du/o
G.D.
duoi/\n
trei/\s 'three'
M.F.
N.
N.V.A.
trei/\s
tri/a
G.
trio^/\n
D.
trisi/(n)
te/ttares,'four'
M.F.
N.
N.V.
te/ttares
te/ttara
A.
te/ttaras
te/ttara
G.
tetta/ro^n
D.
te/ttarsi(n)
The other numbers up to a hundred are indeclinable.
Some feminines end in nom. -a: they are declinable with those in-e^ except in the nom. and acc. singular:-
N.V.
glo^/\tta, tongue
A.
glo^/\ttan
G.
glo^/tte^s
D.
glo^/tte^i
etc., like kale^/
The Reflexive Pronoun is made by adding `auto/n, it 'self ', etc., to the personal, thus:-
First Person
M.
F.
Sing. A.
`emauto/n
`emaute^/n
G.
`emautou/\
`emaute^s
D.
`emauto^i/\
`emaute^i/\
Plur. A.
hema^/\s `autou/s, etc.(separate)
Second Person
M.
F.
Sing. A.
seauto/n(or sauto/n)
seaute^/n (saute^/n), etc.
Plur. A.
huma^/\s `autou/s, etc.
Third Person
M.
F.
N.
Sing. A.
heauto/n
heaute^/n
heauto/(n), etc.
Plur. A.
heautou/s
heauta/s
heauta/
G.
heauto^/\n
heauto^/\n
heauto^/\n
D.
heautoi/\s
heautai/\s
heautoi/\s
These forms may all be contracted: hauto/n, hautou/s, etc
Distinguish haute^/n reflexive from `aute^/n 'self'.
the oblique case of the 3rd pers. pron. following are also used with or without `autou/s for the 3rd pers. reflex. plural:-
ACCENT IN VERBS.--The accent goes back as far as possible.
ACCENT IN NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.--The accent remains on the same syllable as in the nominative, unless a general rule forbids.
But the gen. plur. of-a stems is circumflexed on the last (as glo^/\tta, but glo^tto^/\n).
Note.-- With the ultima of the stem has the accent, as phuto/n, the accent in the omicron/alpha declension has the circumflex in gen. and dat., since the endings for these cases (in singular and plural) begin with vowels. The accented stem vowel combines (see contraction) with the ending vowels, and the result is therefore a sliding down:
phutou/\←phuto/o,
phuto^i/\←phuto/^i.
SPECIAL RULE FOR ACCENTS.---oi and-ai final, although diphthongs, and therefore long,
are treated as short for the purposes of accent (except in the past conjunctive mood here).
VOCABULARY
VERBS
pra^/tto^ do
tre/pho^ feed, rear, nourish
NOUNS
`apori/a^ difficulty
`arbu/le^ boot
geo^rgo/s [cp. George] farmer
`eire^ne^ peace
`e/rgon work, toil
theo/s god
hi^ma/tion cloak
nou/\s mind
kephale^/ head
pe/tra^ rock
po/lemos war
phuto/n plant
khlai/\na cloak, overall
`o^/\mos shoulder
ADJECTIVES
`eleu/theros free
leuko/s white
khre^/simos useful
khre^sto/s good, honest
ADVERBS CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES
`aei/ always
`a/ra [usually stands second in the clause] then
`ou/\n [always stands second in the sentence] therefore
ge [particle of emphasis added to pronouns, as `e/go^ge]
de/ and, but
de^/ indeed
me\n..de/ [of two contrasted things: both stand after the words contrasted ] on the one hand.. on the other hand
kai/ + `en = k`an.
This contraction, or crasis as it is called, is often used with certain common particles and the conjunction kai/.
Two words forming a group are often run together in speaking;
when a short vowel, or sometimes a short inital vowel, is cut off (elided).
Thus tou/\t' `estin, poi/a `stin, like "who's he?"
Editor's note: Postposition
Although the word order in the clause is normally free, there are some Greek words which are translated first in English, but must be the second word (sometimes third word if the first two form a strong unit) in the Greek clause. These are all common words.
Some conjunctions or conjunctive-adverbs are used only to link clauses. These are post-positive:
me/n usually not translated unless it comes before another conjunction or adverb (where it means "so"), usually introduces the clause before a clause introduced by de/
de/ "but" or "and", depending upon whether this clause contrasts with or completes the previous
ga/r "for", gives the reason for the previous clause
`ou/\n "so", gives the result of the previous clause
toi/nun "therefore", gives a result or summing up of previous clause(s)
Most conjunctions are used to link words of the same parts of speech, or phrases having the same function. Most are placed between their words. But one of these -- te\ -- is used postpositively.
"Weak" adverbs (particles) add a "flavor" to their words they modify. A few must be in the post-positive position:
ge\ 1) (limiting) "at least, at any rate" 2) (intensifying) "in fact"
ta\ khre^sta\ pra/ttein `e/rgon `e/st' `eleuthe/rou, (infinitive phrases can work as subject) "to do good things is of a free (man)".
nou/\s = mind, reason, soul.
CONVERSATION LESSON (to be answered by the pupil)
Note the word order of the questions and imitate this in your answers. The questions and answers for these conversations are from the previous readings.
2. The pattern for these conversations is the following:
What is your ___(N)___ like? My ___(N)___ is ___(A)___.
So you have a ___(A)___ ___(N)___? Exactly, teacher, ___(A)___.
poi/\a/ `estin he^ `oiki/a sou?mikra/ `estin he^ `oiki/a mou. mikra\n `a/ra `e/kheis `oiki/an?ma/lista/ ge, `o^/\ dida/skale, mikra/n.
On the same model with any suitable adjectives:
poi/o^ to^\ `ophthalmo^/ `eston? poi/\oi de\ hoi da/ktuloi? poi/\a/ `sti ta\ de/ndra?
3.The pattern for these conversations is the following:
I have a (using dative case) ___(N)___ (that is) ___(A)___. What is yours like?
Mine (using dative case) is ___(A)___.
`e/sti moi kli/ne^ kale^/: poi/a de\ soi/?kake^\ `e/moige. pe/nte `e/kho^ `ego^/: su\ de\ po/sas?de/ka `e/go^ge.
Also `e/ston moi kako^\ to^\ `ophthalmo^/: poi/o^ de\ soi/? `emoi\ me\n makroi\ hoi da/ktuloi: soi\ de\ poi/\oi?
MORE ON VOWELS
There are 5 short vowels in all languages, Greek has a letter for each.
Each of the short vowels can be lengthened in Greek, Greek has a special letter only for 2 of them. But the other three can be lengthened also, and are shown in dictionaries with macrons when they are long.
Remember to lengthen the sound of the long vowels to roughly twice the length of the short vowels,
keep the same quality of sound throughout.
Also remember that, in the Attic dialect,
long a a^ unless it comes after ei or r,
will change in sound, and therefore in writing, to eta e^.
sound
a
e
i
o
u
short
a
e
i
o
u
long
a^(e^)
e^
i^
o^
u^
Now, the same two vowel sounds which have a special vowel letter for their purely long sound
often lengthen instead by gliding off into another sound, as we do in English when we say long vowels like "bake" /beik/ and "no" /nou/.
In Greek these mixed diphthongs are written exactly as they sound, as diphthongs: ei and ou.
So the entire system of vowels in Attic Greek is properly this:
short
a
e
i
o
u
long (pure)
a^(e^)
e^
i^
o^
u^
long (mixed)
a^(e^)
ei
i^
ou
u^
SYLLABLES
Parts of a Syllable:
Any consonant or consonant cluster that begins a word can begin a syllable, but this is optional and contributes nothing to the length of the syllable.
The required vowel or diphthong is the most important part of the syllable. The vowel's length contributes most to the length of the syllable.
Optional consonant(s) can end a syllable, lengthening it further. If the syllable ends in a consonant it is closed otherwise it is open.
Initial vs Final Consonants: If a word begins with a vowel, it will pull as many consonants from the previous word that can begin a syllable.
To divide a text (e.g. "κάπτοντεs αὔραs, ἐsθίοντεs ἐλπίδαs") into syllables:
(a text has as many syllables as vowels and diphthong)
isolate the vowels and diphthongs ( κ-ά-πτ-ο-ντ-ε-s -αὔ-ρ-α-s -ἐ-sθ-ί-ο-ντ-ε-s -ἐ-λπ-ί-δ-α-s )
assign all initial consonants to syllables ( κά-πτο-ν-τε-sαὔ-ρα-sἐs-θί-ο-ν-τε-sἐ-λ-πί-δα-s )
(any remaining isolated consonants are final consonants) ( κά-πτον-τε-sαὔ-ρα-sἐs-θί-ον-τε-sἐλ-πί-δαs )
Syllable length: The length of a syllable is the sum of the length of its vowel and the sound to pronounce the trailing consonants.
κά
πτον
τε
sαὔ
ρα
sἐs
θί
ον
τε
sἐλ
πί
δαs
S
L
S
L
S
L
S
L
S
L
S
L
The "Historic tenses" are past indicative moods in all three aspects: Imperfect, Aorist, and Perfect.
The Imperfect Past is formed from the Imperfective Stem.
The Aorist Past is formed from the Aorist Stem, which is derived from the Imperfect stem. Most verbs add sigma-alpha to the imperfect stem, and we say they form a sigmatic (or "weak") aorist. Others remove elements of the imperfect stem to get the simple verb stem, and we say they form a root (or "strong") aorist.
Past perfect perfect is formed from the Perfect Stem, itself formed by reduplicating the verb stem. More on this in a later chapter.
The Aorist is used of simple or momentary action. In the past it has the value of the preterite.
In this chapter you will learn how to form the past indicative in both the imperfect and the aorist aspect. The imperfect past is used for continuous or repeated past action (I was doing, I kept doing, I used to do), while the aorist past is used for simple past action (I did).
Both of these past tenses use the same endings. And all past indicative time is clarified by prefixing the augment.
THE AUGMENT:
All past indicatives have an initial signal called the Augment.
When the stem begins with a consonant, the Augment is the syllable `e-
When it begins with a vowel, that vowel is lengthened purely. A long vowel remains unchanged.
RULES FOR CHANGE OF VOWEL UNDER THE AUGMENT.--
a becomes e^
u becomes u^
e becomes e^
ai becomes e^i
o becomes o^
oi becomes o^i
i becomes i^
eu becomes e^u
N.B.--The Augment is only used in the Indicative Mood. No other mood!
To form the imperfect past indicative: start with the augment, use the imperfect stem, and add the new imperfect past endings.
In this chapter we will form only root/strong aorists, and learn the sigmatic/weak aorists next chapter.
To form the strong aorist past indicative: again start with the augment, use the strong aorist stem, and reuse the same imperfect past endings.
IMPERFECTIVE PAST INDICATIVE
lamba/no^ 'I am taking'
`ela/mbanon 'I was taking', 'I kept taking', 'I used to take'
(imperfective stem lamban- + new imperfect past ending - on)
lu^/-o^
`akou/-o^
`eimi\ I am
Sing 1.
`e/-lu^-on
`e^/kou-on
`e^/\n or `e^/\
2.
`e/-lu^-es
`e^/kou-es
`e^/\stha
3.
`e/-lu^-e(n)
`e^/kou-e(n)
`e^/\n
Dual 2.
`e-lu^-eton
`e^kou/-eton
`e^/\ton
3.
`e-lu^-e/te^n
`e^kou-e/te^n
`e^/ten
Plur 1.
`e-lu^/-omen
`e^kou/-omen
`e^/\men
2.
`e-lu^/-ete
`e^kou/-ete
`e^/\te
3.
`e/-lu^-on
`e^/kou-on
`e^/\san
N.B.-- 1st sing. and 3rd plur. are the same form: the 3rd plur. originally had a final -t (`e/luont) like Latin amant, etc.
STRONG AORIST PAST INDICATIVE
The following common verbs form a strong aorist. All involve a reduction of the imperfect stem by removing characteristic imperfect elements to obtain the simple verb stem. Of course, compounds of these verb also form a strong aorist, so that there are about 50 in common use.
lexical form
english meaning
imperfective stem
strong aorist stem
explanation
lei/po^
leave
leip-
lip-
remove the e in diphthong
pheu/go^
flee
pheug-
phug-
remove the e in diphthong
mantha/no^
learn
manthan-
math-
remove (a)n
tugkha/no^
get
tugkhan-
tukh-
remove (a)n
lantha/no^
evade
lanthan-
lath-
remove (a)n
hamarta/no^
miss
hamartan-
hamar-
remove (a)n
lamba/no^
take
lamban-
lab-
remove (a)n and the -m-
pi/no^
drink
pin-
pi-
remove n
ba/llo^
throw
ball-
bal-
remove one l
heuri/sko^
find
heurisk-
heur-
remove (i)sk
thne^i/sko^
die
thne^isk-
than-
remove (i)sk, vocalise nasal
pa/skho^
undergo
paskh-
path-
remove sk, restore missing hidden th
`e/kho^
have
`ekh-
skh-
just irregular..
pi/pto^
fall
pipt-
pes-
just irregular..
`a/go^
lead
`ag-
`agag-
only one that reduplicates for aorist
lamba/no^ 'I am taking',
`e/labon 'I took'
(imperfective stem lamban- reduces to verb-stem aorist stem lab- + new imperfect past ending - on)
lamba/no^, stem lab
Sing 1.
`e/-lab-on
2.
`e/-lab-es
3.
`e/-lab-e(n)
Dual 2.
`e-la/b-eton
3.
`e-lab-e/te^n
Plur 1.
`e-la/b-omen
2.
`e-la/b-ete
3.
`e/-lab-on
To form strong aorist infinitive from the strong aorist indicative: drop the augment and change-on to-ei/\n (always circumflexed): `e/labon→labei/\n.
Comparatively few verbs form a strong aorist, but the ones that do are common. Therefore you will not yet be able to form the aorist of most verbs until you learn the sigmatic aorist in the next chapter.
VOCABULARY
VERBS
`ekseta/tso^ examine
`e/phe^ "said he"
keleu/o^ bid
NOUNS
`aksi/a^ worth, value
dou/\los slave
drakhme^/ drachma (silver coin about as large as a franc)
he^mimnai/\on half-mina
mna^/\ mina, a weight, or a sum of money (100 drachmae, about £10)
pe/tasos hat
phi/los friend
ADJECTIVES
`a/ksios worth, worthy
he/kastos each
hopo/sos as much/many as, as long as
CONJUNCTIONS ADVERBS PARTICLES
`ei [`ei/ge] if
nai/ yes
`oude/ not even
`oude\..`oude\ neither...nor
`oukou/\n then
pou\ doubtless, I suppose (enclitic)
EXERCISE
1.Form and conjugate the Imperfect past from the following verbs:--
3.Express in the past time, and in different persons and numbers to be chosen by the teacher:--
phe/ro^ to\n pe/tason `epi\ te^/\s kephale^/\s. mantha/no^ ta\ khre^sta\ `en to^i/\ bibli/o^i. le/go^ tou/\to `ei/\nai kalo\n lu/pe^s pha/rmakon. gra/pho^ he/kasta `en to^i/\ bibli/o^i. `akou/o^ khre^sta\ te^i/\ `akoe^i/\. `elpi/tso^ khre^/simon `ei/\nai to\n khre^sto/n ble/po^ toi/\s `ophthalmoi/\s he/kasta.
READING LESSON
1. `e^/kousapast aorist of `akou/einde/ pote kai\ `a/llon `autou/\ lo/gon, ho^i/\ `eke/leusen ho So^kra/te^s he/kaston `ekseta/tsein heauto/n,
hopo/sou toi/\s phi/lois `a/ksio/s `estin, `a^/\r', `e/phe^, `eisi\n `aksi/ai phi/lo^n, ho^/sper gou/lo^n?
to^/\n ga\r dou/lo^n ho me\n pou duoi/\n mnai/\n `a/ksio/s `estin, ho de\ pe/nte mno^/\n, ho de\ kai\ de/ka, ho d' `oud' he^mimnai/ou. nai/, `e/phe^ ho `Antisthe/ne^s.
`oukou/\n, `ephe^ ho So^kra/te^s, `ei/ ge tau/\t' `esti\ toiau/\ta, kalo^/\s `e/khei*`ekseta/tsein
heauto\n he/kaston `a/nthro^pon, po/sou `a/ra `esti\ toi/\s phi/lois `a/ksios.
2. Socrates tell the story. 3. Antisthenes tells the story.
Socrates compares the value of friends to the value of slaves.
The adverb with `e/kho^ expresses a state: kalo^/\s `e/khei 'it is well'.
The 17 consonants can be classified in meaningful linguistic ways to aid in understanding Greek morphology.
MUTE or STOP Consonants are the shortest, and end as soon as they begin.
* There are two membranes in the throat called vocal cords.
If these tightened when the air comes up from the lungs, the sound is called Voiced, if they are slack it is called unvoiced.
The tightened, vibrating cords can be felt by placing a finger upon the throat.
NASAL and LIQUID Consonants can be prolonged at will and are similar to vowels.
l,r LIQUIDS
m,n NASALS
These two sounds classes function as consonants before vowels, but take on a vocal quality after consonants, as in English 'table' and 'cott(o)n' (tā-bl and co-tn). In Greek, when they cannot be pronounced as consonants, they change into a short alpha sound and are written as short alpha instead, e.g. `e/lpidn → `e/lpida
SIBILANT Consonants are characterized by hissing air.
s SIBILANT
ts,ks,ps COMPOUND-SIBILANTS (ts/ds, ks, ps)
Editors's note: Sigma
The letter sigma is very common in Greek phonology and morphology.
All of the hissing sound it produces occurs right behind the front teeth. But this is also where the dental sounds are formed, and where the tongue strikes the teeth for both liquid sounds and the nasal sound, nu.
Accordingly, when sigma comes together (e.g. when adding sigma to a stem ending in nu) with these letters we expect some behavior that reconciles this.
The following rules describe the behaviors with these types of consonants, and with vowels.
SIGMA RULE ONE: When the mute consonants combine with sigma,
1) (gutturals and labials) the result is the compound-sibilant sound of that type:
b,p,ph + s = ps
and
g,k,kh + s = ks
2) (dentals) a dental is merely lost before sigma.
ds,ts,tss → s
SIGMA RULE TWO: When the liquid consonants (lambda and rho) or nasal nu combine with sigma,
1) the nasal is lost and any previous short vowel compensates for the loss by lengthening impurely e.g. en + s = eis, or
2) the sigma is lost and the previous vowel compensates for the loss by lengthening purely e.g. mon + s = mo^n
SIGMA RULE THREE: When a short contractable vowel of verbs (alpha, epsilon, omicron) precedes sigma,
1) the vowel lengthens purely e.g. a + sa = a^sa, e + sa = e^sa, o + sa = o^sa
note) in Attic, the resulting long alpha regularly changes to eta: a^sa → e^sa
THE SIGMATIC/WEAK AORIST PAST INDICATIVE
The Sigmatic or Weak Aorist stem is formed by adding sa to the Imperfective stem. The majority of verbs, and all verbs whose imperfect stem ends with vowel that contracts (i.e. a, e, o) form the aorist stem this way. Be aware of the sigma rules as you form the sigmatic aorist stem *, which often results in the loss of the characteristic sigma. And note the new sigmatic aorist past endings, including the unusual 3rd person singular.
The Future stem is formed from the aorist stem be removing the final alpha. (Remember that the sigma itself might also have been lost if the stem were a liquid or nasal: these future stems compensate for lost alpha by adding -e to the future stem, which contracts with the endings). The future uses the imperfect indicative present endings. There is, of course, no augment.
Sing. 1.
lu^/-s-o^
ble/ps-o^(blep-s-o^)
2.
lu^/-s-eis
ble/ps-eis
3.
lu^/-s-ei
ble/ps-ei
Dual 2.
lu^/-s-eton
3.
lu^/-s-eton
Plur 1.
lu^/-s-omen
2.
lu^/-s-ete
3.
lu^/-s-ousi(n)
Infin.
lu^/-s-ein
ble/ps-ein
All verbs that form a weak aorist form their future in the way shown above. Verbs that form a strong aorist usually don't form their future stem from their aorist stem, but a sigma is usually involved.
lexical form
english meaning
imperfective stem
strong aorist stem
future stem
lei/po^
leave
leip-
lip-
leips-
pheu/go^
flee
pheug-
phug-
pheuks-
`a/go^
lead
`ag-
`agag-
`aks-
hamarta/no^
miss
hamartan-
hamar-
hamarte^s-
heuri/sko^
find
heurisk-
heur-
heure^s-
mantha/no^
learn
manthan-
math-
mathe^s-
ba/llo^
throw
ball-
bal-
bale- (contr)
pi/pto^
fall
pipt-
pes-
pese- (contr)
thne^i/sko^
die
thne^isk-
than-
thane- (contr)
lamba/no^
take
lamban-
lab-
le^mps-
pi/no^
drink
pin-
pi-
pi-
lantha/no^
evade
lanthan-
lath-
le^s-
tugkha/no^
get
tugkhan-
tukh-
teuks-
pa/skho^
undergo
paskh-
path-
peis-
`e/kho^
have
`ekh-
skh-
heks-
EXERCISE.--Form Future and Past Aorist from le/go^, lei/po^, pau/o^, `a/rkho^, pe/mpo^, kle^io^, gra/pho^, ta/tto^ (verb stem = tag).
VOCABULARY
VERBS
`arista/o^ breakfast
`elau/o^ drive
he/lko^ draw, pull
thauma/tso^ wonder
therapeu/o^ tend, care
kle^i/o^ shut
hora/o^ see
tau/o^ check
pe/mpo^ send
ta/tto^ fix, order, arrange
ti/kto^ produce, bring forth
pheu/go^ flee
PREPOSITIONS
`eis [`es, acc.] into
pro/s [acc.] towards, for
`apo/ [gen.] from
`ek [`eks, (gen.)] out of
NOUNS
`a/ggelos messenger
`agora^/ market-place
`adelpho/s brother
ha/maksa cart, carriage
bla/be^ harm
diathe^/ke^ will
di/ke^ lawsuit, justice
tsugo/n yoke
tha/latta sea
hi/ppos horse
kle^ro/nomos heir
ko^/me^ village
skholastiko/s scholar,pedant
khro/nos [cp. chronic] time
`o^io/n egg
ADJECTIVES
`ekei/\nosekei/ne^,`ekei/\no that (over there)
koino/s [communis] common,public
ho/moios like/similar
phila/rguros miserly
ADVERBS
`au/rion tomorrow
`ekhthe/s [khthe/s] yesterday
he^de/o^s pleasantly
ma/la very,much
`oi/koi at-home
`oi/kothen from-home
`oi/kade homewards
hou/to^s so,thus
te^/meron to-day
ho^s as,how
SYNTAX RULE, 5.--Generally speaking, motion towards is expressed by the accusative;
motion from is expressed by the genitive;
rest at is expressed by the dative;
and prepositions with these meanings take these cases.
(`epi/, with genitive for both 'motion' and 'rest' is an illogical exception)
In prose the cases should not be used alone but with their proper prepositions.
apposition is being used in sentence #1 and you may want to treat sentence #4 as two separate clauses.
CONVERSATION LESSON
1. the usual questions should be made from the above sentences. After practicing the conversation, nos. 1 to 4 should be learnt by heart. ti/nas ho khro/nos therapeu/sei?se therapeu/sei ho khro/nos. ti/s `e^ri/ste^sen?`ego^\ `e^ri/ste^sa. ti/ `epoie^/samen t`auto/n?he^mei/\s he/lksomen tsugo/n. ti/ `e/tikten?di/ke^ bla/be^. poi/\o/n `esti hou/\tos `ekei/no^i?`ou/k `esti hou/\tos ho/moios `ekei/no^i. ti/ `epoi/e^se phila/guro/s tis?`e/grapse/ tis phila/rguros diathe^/ke^n.
2. (Pay attention to the order of words and resulting emphasis.)
b) in the following, complete sentences should be expected for answer, and may be used for questions:-- `e/pempsa paidi/on. po/then?`oi/kothen. poi/\?`es te^\n `agora/n. po/te?`ekhthe/s. ti/ `e/praksen?`e/phere/ moi `o^ia/. po/sa?de/ka. ti/ `epoi/e^sas?`e^ri/ste^sa.
The same with pe/mpseis, `e/pempsa, `epe/mpsamen or other forms.
THEME.--A carriage and a pair runs away into the sea. A messenger returns to the village, and tells all to the people in the market-place. See example.
Masculines of the first or a-declension add or-s for nom. sing. and make gen. in-ou like second; otherwise are like feminines.
The a^ remains a^ when it follows e, i, or r (a^ "pure"); otherwise e^.
Note the three vocatives.
Stem
nea^nia^(m.)
poli^ta^(m.)
kharmida^
Sing. N.
nea^ni/a^s, youth
poli/te^s, citizen
kharmi/de^s
V.
nea^ni/a
poli^/\ta
kharmi/de^
A.
nea^ni/a^n
poli/te^n
kharmi/de^n
G.
nea^ni/ou
poli/tou
kharmi/dou
D.
nea^nia^i
poli/te^i
kharmi/de^i
Dual N.V.A.
nea^ni/a^
poli/ta^
Plur N.V.
nea^ni/ai
poli/tiain
Dual or plural, if used, like the others.
A.
nea^ni/a^s
poli/ta^s
G.
nea^nio^/\n
poli/to^/\n
D.
nea^ni/ais
poli/tais
EXERCISE.-- Before going on, decline in all numbers and cases: krite^/s, poie^te^/s, Pe/rse^s, stratio^/te^s, tami/a^s, bore/a^s 'north wind', ni^ki/a^s.
For meanings see Vocabulary.
Attic Contraction (not to be memorized, but for reference).
Besides the normal process of a/e/o and i/u uniting to become diphthongs, and a^/e^/o^ + i uniting to become improper diphthongs with iota-subcript, in the Attic dialect a/e/o and a^/e^/o^ also often combine with a/e/o vowels and diphthongs to form contractions:
In the Attic dialect, there are also a few nouns and adjectives, some of them very common, with stems in-eo^.
The cases may be formed by adding to this stem-s, -n or iota (which is always subscript) whenever they occur in the other tables; the neuter plural is the only exception.
hi/leo^s, 'propitious'
M.F.
N.
M.F.N.
M.F.
N.
Sing. N.V.
hi/leo^s
hi/leo^n
Dual hi/leo^
Plur. hi/leo^i
hi/lea
A.
hi/leo^n
hi/leo^n
hi/leo^
hi/leo^s
hi/lea
G.
hi/le^o^
hi/leo^in
hi/leo^n
D.
hi/leo^i
hi/leo^in
hi/leo^is
So neo^/s 'temple'; leo^/s 'people.'
The three contracted verb-stems form their imperfective infinitive and indicatives as follows:--
*Although the infinitive ending is properly -ein, for contracted verbs it is -en
Hints:
All cases of vowel contraction (as for normal and improper diphthongs) are a long vowel or diphthong.
In verbs, contraction only can occur when the imperfect stem ends in a a contractable vowel (alpha, epsilon, omicron). In these cases, contraction occurs in the entire Imperfect aspect, including the moods (and voices) not learned yet.
In contracted forms of o- verbs the only result vowels used are the "o" type vowels: o^, ou and oi.
In contracted forms of a- verbs the only result vowels are a^ and o^.
Since eo and oo both contract to ou, the 1st persons and 3rd person plural endings of poie/o^ and de^lo/o^ have the same endings.
Accenting the contraction:
Before contracting, first place the correct accent on the correct syllable following the rules of persistent or recessive accentuation. If there are two vowels which can contract,
if neither vowel has an accent, simply contract them according to the rules and place no accent on the result.
if the first has an acute, contract them according to the rules and place a circumflex on the result (to indicate the slide down from first to second).
if the second has an acute, contract them according to the rules and place a acute on the result (to indicate the resultant high pitch).
Readings before Chapter 7 have shown verb forms with their vowels largely uncontracted. The readings will now contain only contracted forms. Refer to the contraction table if you have any trouble.
SYNTAX RULES FOR REPORTED SPEECH
6. the accusative and infinitive may be used, generally as in Latin;
but the nominative is used (or omitted) if the word refer to the subject of the main verb.
7. Or the finite construction may be kept,
introduced by ho/ti (or ho^s).
In this case, the time of the direct speech always must be kept, and the mood may be kept.
Compound adjectives have two terminations only: -os -os -on (instead of-os -e^ -on)
CONVERSATION
1. Questions and answers on the above at the master's discretion. The persons and numbers should be changed. Dialogues may then be formed with the words of the Vocabulary on the following Models.
2.
ti/s `ei/\ su/?stratio^/te^s `eimi/. poi/\os de\ stratio^/te^s `ei/\?`andrei/\o/s `eimi stratio^/te^s
So with tami/as, dou/\los, etc., each having a suitable adjective. ti/s `ei/\ su/?tami/as `eimi/. poi/\os de\ tami/as `ei/\?di/kaio/s `eimi tami/as. ti/s `ei/\ su/?dou/\lo/s `eimi. poi/\os de\ dou/\los `ei/\?`ergastiko/s `eimi dou/\los.
3.
ti/s `estin hou/\tos?hou/\tos me\n stratio^/te^s, `ego^\ de\ strate^go/s. ti/ de/ soi poiei/\ ho stratio^/te^s?ho/sa `ego^\ keleu/o^ poiei/\ ho stratio^/te^s.
So with tami/as, dou/\los, and douleu/o^, tamieu/o^, etc. ti/s `estin hou/\tos?hou/\tos me\n dou/\los, `ego^\ de\ despo/te^s. ti/ de/ soi poiei/\ ho dou/\los?douleu/ei ho dou/\los. ti/s `estin hou/\tos?hou/\tos me\n tami/as, `ego^\ de\ de^/makhros. ti/ de/ soi poiei/\ ho tami/as?tamieu/ei ho tami/as.
5.
`a^/\ra douleu/eis?douleu/o^. ti/ni de^\ douleu/eis?to^i/\ despo/te^i douleu/o^.
So in Imperfect, and different numbers and persons. `a^/\ra `edouleu/omen?`edouleu/ete. ti/ni de^\ `edouleu/omen?toi/\s despo/tais duoleu/ete.
7. Combine the following sentences A with B at discretion:--
A. le/go^, le/geis, le/gei, etc. `e/legon, `e/leges, etc.
B. dou/\lo/s `estin `ergastiko/s, dou/\los `e^/\n `ergastiko/s, ho krite^/s `eu/\ kri/nei, to\ `e/laion `e^/\n kalo/n, ho `Indo\s pisteu/ei to^i/\ Pe/rse^i, etc. le/go^ ho/ti dou/\lo/s `esti `ergastiko/s. le/geis ho/ti dou/\los `e^/\n `ergastiko/s. le/gei ho/ti ho krite^/s kri/nei `eu/\. `e/legon ho/ti to\ `e/laion `e^/\n kalo/n. `e/leges ho/ti ho `Indo\s pisteu/ei to^i/\ Pe/rse^i.
The third declension in Greek contains chiefly consonant stems.
One class of these are stems in -ont-, which we take first because the masculine and neuter of certain participles belong to it.
The feminine is of the first declension (type glo^/\tta).
From `eimi/ 'I am'
M.
F.
N.
Sing. N.V.
`o^/n, being
`ou/\sa
`o/n
A.
`o/nta
`ou/\san
`o/n
G.
`o/ntos
`ou/se^s
`o/ntos
D.
`o/nti
`ou/se^i
`o/nti
Dual N.V.A.
`o/nte
`ou/sa^
o/nte
G.D.
`o/ntoin
`ou/sain
`o/ntoin
Plur. N.V.
`o/ntes
`ou/\sai
`o/nta
A.
`o/ntas
`ou/sa^s
`o/nta
G.
`o/nto^n
`ouso^/\n
`o/nto^n
D.
`ou/\si(n)
`ou/sais
`ou/\si(n)
Compare Lat. amans, amantem, etc.
The participles which belong to this class are:--
Imperfect Active Participle of the verbs already given.
Future Active Participle
Aorist Active (Second/Strong).
These may be declined by adding the above as endings to the stem thus:--
lu/-o^n
lu/-ousa
lu^/\-on
lu/s-o^n
lu/s-ousa
lu^/\s-on
lab-o^/n
lab-ou/\sa
lab-o/n(note the accent)
N.B.--The dat. plur. m. and n. of the Pres. Part. Act. has the same form as the 3rd plur. pres. indic. act. (lu/ousin).
The participles of contracted stems are:--
(a)
(e)
(o)
timo^/\n timo^/\sa timo^/\n
poio^/\n poiou/\sa poiou/\n
de^lo^/\n de^lou/\sa de^lou/\n
timo^/\ntos, etc.
poiou/\ntos, etc.
de^lou/\ntos, etc.
The 1st (weak) or a aorist participle is declined with a in the endings, but otherwise in the same way:--
N.
lu/s-a^s
lu/s-a^sa
lu^/\s-an
G.
lu/s-antos
lu^s-a/se^s
lu/s-antos, etc.
Nouns of the-nt stem have sometimes a special vocative form, but are otherwise like the participles:--
Sing. N.
le/o^n, lion
gi/ga^s, giant
V.
(le/on)
(gi/gan)
A.
le/onta, etc
gi/ganta, etc
Plur. D.
le/ousi(n)
gi/ga^si(n)
The adjective pa^/\s pa^/\sa pa^/\n 'all' is declined like lu/sa^s.
Editors's note: Participle translation
For those unfamiliar with the usage and translation of participles, the following is a guide:
Participles are verb forms taking an object and having voice, aspect and time; but they are also determinants, always in adjective concord with a noun in the clause.
Most often they have an adverbial function indirectly referring back to a noun antecedent.
But in attributive position (after the article) they have adjectival function, directly modifying a noun.
Or they can be used in constructions, such as indirect statement after knowing and perceiving (instead of accusative+infinitive for saying and thinking), or the genitive absolute, impersonal adverbial absolute, complementary participle.
The first two usages translate the participle as a subordinate clause as a subordinate clause, CONJUNCTION + (SUBJECT) + VERB-PHRASE.
If the participle is adverbial, supply a SUBJECT based on the number and gender (and meaning) of the participle/antecedent.
The VERB PHRASE is in the indicative mood, in the aspect of the participle, in (relation to) the time of the clause's finite verb.
A practical way to translate the participle is to start with an the basic adjectival participle usage and adjust it in steps:
start the translation of the participle as "that" + verb phrase in the voice and aspect of the participle using the present indicative.
e.g. `o\nti - "that is being" NOTE: this step should be easy and take no more than a second.
bring the time of participle's translation in line with that of the clause's finite verb
e.g. if the main clause verb were `e/legen, "that is being" → "that was being"
note: occasionally an aorist participle has its time before the clause's finite verb's time
if the participle is not used adjectivally (i.e. not preceded by an article in text), change the "that" to "while/since/if/although" + a subject pronoun based on its number.
note: if the participle's aspect is aorist or perfect, change the "while" to "when/after"
e.g. "that was being" → "while/since/if/although he/she/it was being"
then adjust the subject based on the antecedent, sometimes even adjusting the person of the pronoun.
e.g. if the antecedent were paidi/on, "while/since/if/although he/she/it was being" → "while/since/if/although he was being"
note: the choice of translation conjunction can be clarified by an explicit Greek adverbial conjunction: `a/te, hoi/\on, ho^s for "since"; kai/, kai/per for "although"; ho^/sper for "as if"
IMPERATIVE AND CONJUNCTIVE OF IMPERFECTIVE AND STRONG AORIST
Imperative
Conjunctive Present
Conjunctive Past
Sing.1
lu/-o^
lu/-oimi
2.
lu^/\-e
lu/-e^is
lu/-ois
3.
lu-e/to^
lu/-e^i
lu/-oi
Dual 2.
lu/-eto
lu/-e^ton
lu/-oi
3.
lu/-e/to^n
lu/-e^ton
lu-oi/te^n
Plur. 1.
lu/-o^men
lu/-oimen
2.
lu/-ete
lu/-o^men
lu/-oimen
3.
lu-o/nto^n
lu/-o^si(n)
lu/-oien
Compare the Latin forms lege, legito, legite, legunto. So labe/ labe/to^; la/bo^ la/be^is; la/boimi la/bois.
Only five verbs have the acute on the ultima in the strong aorist imperative: `eipe/, `elthe/, heure/, `ide/, labe/; the rest ba/le, etc.
IMPERATIVE AND CONJUNCTIVE OF WEAK AORIST
Imperative
Conjunctive Present
Conjunctive Past
Sing. 1.
lu/s-o^
lu/sa-imi
2.
lu^/\s-on
lu/s-e^is
lu/sa-is (lu/s-eias)
3.
lusa/-to^
lu/s-e^i
lu/sa-i, (lu/s-eie)
Dual 2.
lu/sa-ton
lu/s-e^ton
lu/sa-iton
3.
lusa/-to^n
lu/s-e^ton
lusa-i/te^n
Plur. 1
lu/s-o^men
lu/sa-imen
2.
lu/sa-te
lu/s-e^te
lu/sa-ite
3.
lusa/-nto^n
lu/s-o^si(n)
lu/sa-ien (lu/s-eian)
The First or Weak Aorist looses its alpha in the Conjunctive Present; in the other moods it keeps it. The singular imperative-on (absorbing the alpha) is especially irregular.
SYNTAX RULE, 8.--The Absolute Case in Greek is the genitive: as `emou/\ le/gontos 'while/since/although I was speaking...'
SYNTAX RULE, 9.--Purpose is expressed by hi/na, ho^s, or ho/to^s with subjunctive or optative, regularly following the sequence of tenses.
When the sequence is not followed it is to indicate a nuance: the optative is less vivid, and the subjunctive is lawful.
SYNTAX RULE, 10.--The Optative (Conjunctive past) is used:--
to express a wish (negative as expected with me^/).
Do not express a wish in Greek by starting with the/lo^.. or `elpitso^.. -- instead use the verb simply in the optative, or begin a subordinate clause with `ei ga/r or `ei/the:
le/goimi, `ei ga\r le/goimi 'O that I might speak' me^\ ge/noito 'may it not be'
to express the conditional (negative as expected with me^/) with `ei:
`ei le/goimi 'if I would say'
to express a hypothetical statement (negative with `ou!!)
The remoteness of the hypothetical statement is indicated with `a/n:
le/goimi `a/n 'Suppose I say'
SYNTAX RULE, 11.--General or future expressions are made by adding `a/n to any relative word:
as ho/s 'who', ho/s `a/n 'whoever';
or ho/te 'when', ho/tan 'whenever';
so `ea/n 'if ever'.
The rule of tense sequence is usually followed, and the `a/n is dropped with with the optative.
Thus `ea/n lu/so^men, `ei lu/saimen.
EXERCISE.--Tenses should be formed and conjugated from verbs already given in earlier vocabularies
AUGMENT IN COMPOUND VERBS.-Compound verbs augment the simple verb, and prefix the preposition,
eliding its final vowel if any (except these ending in iota `epi/, peri/):
as `ap-anto^/\, `ap-e^nte^sa: `apo-thne^isko^, `ap-e/thanon;
but peri-airo^/\, peri-e^iroun.
Skholastiko/s is a proper name, be aware of the use of many participles in the text and their possible objects and case of these objects, and the author might be using a joking context in some sentences.
`aksi/o^ = to think fit, expect, require, demand that.
A few common verbs are conjugated in the imperfect aspect with different endings.
The 1st sing. present indicative, for instance, ends in-mi.
Besides the imperfect stem used to form the imperfect aspect, and the aorist stem(s) used to form the aorist aspect, and the perfect stem used to form the perfect aspect, one can speak of one stem upon which all previous three are built: the verb stem. This verb stem is the most basic stem, before any of reduplication, or infices (-i-, -sk-, -n-) or suffices (-sa, -ka, -the) are added to make the aspect stems. Often, understanding the verb stem helps to remember the aspect stems more easily.
Four common verbs in-mi reduplicate the verb stem to get the imperfect stem. (`ei/\mi and phe^/mi use the unaltered verb stem, and a common class ending in -nu^mi append -nu- to the verb stem)
This last poem was probably sung to tragic-comic stately music, following rhythm of iambic trimeter. This meter is characterized by the iambos pattern (short-long), trimeter is 3 measures of the pattern per line. To avoid monotony, the first short of every measure can be either short or long. The resulting meter for each line is therefore | ? -–- - -–- | ? -–- - -–- | ? -–- - -–- | example in English: | The ōn- -ly news | I know is bul- | -le- -tins all day. |
And the pitch of the music should follow the pitch accent:
5.Narrate acting with objects: putting vs setting (i.e. making a longish object stand up).
Use this pattern for all pairs of objects and adverbials that make sense.
Thou art not putting/setting the ______ in(to)/on(to) the ______,
so I am putting/setting the ______ in(to)/on(to) the ______.
Objects (some "standable", some not)
There are three Voices -- Active, Middle, and Passive. The Middle and Passive have the same form in the Imperfective and Perfective, but different in the Future and Aorist. Even when the forms are the same, however, they can always be distinguished by sense or construction.
The Middle Voice means that an action is done for oneself of in ones own interest. If there is an object, then that object is closely connected to the subject, lou/omai ku/ona 'I wash my dog'. Although the middle voice can be used for reflexive actions (those done to oneself, where the object = the subject), as lou/omai 'I wash myself', generally the active voice with the reflexive pronoun is used for this.
IMPERFECTIVE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE (infinitive, participle, indicative moods)
* The present ending is -esai and the past ending is -eso. See sigma rule four, below.
SIGMA RULE FOUR: Inter-vocal Sigma: Sigma between two contractable vowels is lost. Contraction normally ensues,
The middle passive endings -esai and -eso always lose their inter-vocal sigma: -eai and -eo
Then they usually (but not always) further contract: -e^i and -ou
The First Aorist makes `e-lu^-sa/-me^n, `e-lu^/-so^, `e-lu^/-sato, etc. Note the 2nd sing.
Aorist and Future Middle voice will be learned completely in a later lesson.
paia^nismo/s chanting of the paean, or solemn song; sailors' chanty
ploi/\on vessel
plou/\s voyage
ADJECTIVES
`ai/sios prosperous, lucky
ho/mois like
`ou/rios favourable
sphodro/s strong, violent
ADVERBS, etc
`aiei/`aei/, always
`a/no^ above
`e/ti still, yet
`e^/de^ already
`euthu/s straightway
kata\ mikro/n little by little
kata\ to\ ploi/\on about the ship
ka/to^ below
nu^/\n now
ho^sho^/sper, as though
ho^s [ prep. with acc, used of persons] to
ho^s [ exclamatory relative ] how!
e-verbs which are disyllables are partially uncontracted, as ple/o^,
only contract those forms where two e's come together: ple/o^, plei/\s, plei/\, plei/\ton, plei/\ton, pleo/men, plei/\te, ple/ousi(n).
The same is true of them when compounded: dia-the/o^ etc.
SYNTAX RULE, 12. -- The adjective `auto/s is used in the following way:--
Agreeing with a (pro)noun it means '___ myself, ___ yourself, ___ himself, etc':
`auto\s le/go^ 'I say it' myself ('I myself' say it)
ktei/nousi to\n `a/nthro^pon `auto/n 'They kill the man himself'.
Reflexive in the compound , i.e. '-self'
heauto/n, etc.:
`auto\s pai/ei heauto/n 'he himself strikes himself'.
With article it means, 'the same ___':
ho `auto\s `a/nthro^pos 'the same man'.
SYNTAX RULE, 13. -- Words meaning 'like' or 'the same' take the dative: hou/\tos `esti\n ho `auto\s `ekei/no^i 'this man is the same as that'
A common word trie^/re^s, 'trireme', follow the same type (voc. trie^/\res or trie^/re^s).
* - all of these stems ending in -es are potentially subject to Sigma Rule Four -- loss of intervocal sigma followed by contraction (review here)
SYNTAX RULE, 14:-- Besides the constructions given in (see syntax rule 9), purpose may also be expressed by ho^s with the Future Participle (as `e/legen ho^s bla/pso^n 'he spoke with a view to hurt'); or sometimes by ho^/ste with infinitive.
VOCABULARY
VERBS
`akma/tso^ be in one's prime, be ripe
`amele/o^ disregard
`apo-pei/no^ stretch, extend
`apo-truga/o^ [see truga/o^]
`apo-phe/ro^ carry-off, take-away
basta/tso^ lift,carry
gi/gnomai [, gene^/somai,`egeno/me^n; geno/menos] become
`e/mele/ tini drepa/ne^s (me/lein), (the verb is frequently used impersonally, with the object in gen. and the person in dat.) "someone cares for a sickle". `amele^/santes (`amele/ein), this verb takes a direct object in gen. `eis, (use 'for' to express purpose: `es tome^/n)"for cutting".
`ephi/koito (`ephikne/esthai), also takes a direct object in gen.
Conversation Lesson on the above as usual, but not always in the active voice -- occasionally vary with passive construction (passive verb and agent with `apo/ or hupo/).
Future Optative, Infinitive, and Participle use the same endings as the Imperfect:
lu^s-oi/me^n
lu^/s-esthai
lu^s-o/menos
lu-the^s-oi/me^n
lu-the^/s-esthai
lu-the^s-o/menos
There is logically no Future Subjunctive, since the Subjunctive already has a future meaning.
SYNTAX RULE, 15.--The fut. opt. is never used except in Oblique to represent the Fut. Ind. of Recta in Historic Sequence. Thus: lu^/so^:-- `e/legen ho/ti lu^/soi.
`ikhthu/s has u^ in disyllabic cases, u in others.
SO NEUTER
Sing.
`a/stu, `a/steo^os, 'city', etc.
da/kru, da/krous, 'tear'
Plu.
`a/ste^
da/krua
SYNTAX RULE, 16.--Extent of time or space is denoted by the accusative; point of time or space by the dative.
SYNTAX RULE, 17:--Acts or states which extend from the past into the present are expressed by the present tense: as de/ka `e/te^ noso^/\ 'I have been ill for ten years'. So in Latin: decem annos laboro.
polu/n `e^/de^ khro/non = a long time now (idiom). ta/kh' `a/n = probably (idiom). k`a/peit' (kai/ + `e/peita) = "and then". he^me/ran `eks he^me/ras = from day to day (idiom).
k`ane/roito (kai/ + `anere/sthai) = "and he might ask". hupokrou/seien is the Aor. 3rd person singular of hupokrou/ein but using the less common ending-eie.
The neuter article may be prefixed to any adverbial phrase, making the whole adverbial. to\ kath' heka/ste^n is contrasted with suna/pasai by the particles me/n and de/. It is an adverbial phrase meaning 'one by one' the same as kath' heka/ste^n.
Fut. of puntha/nomai. i^/ may be added for emphasis to all forms of the demostrative pronouns, eliding a final-e: ho/de + i^ = hodi^/. Aor. of gi/gnomai. Perfect of diaphtheiro. Dual of gune^/* Any form of the article which ends in a vowel may contract with the he- of he/teros, the compound being aspirated: ho he/teros → ha^/teros, he^ hete/ra → ha^te/ra, to\ he/teron → tha^/teron. Forms with consonant endings of course cannot contract (e.g. te^\n hete/ran).
EXERCISE
1.Conjugate the Moods of the Future Middle and Passive of tara/tto^, hupokrou/o^; and the Fut. Middle of puntha/nomai, gi/gnomai, thu/o^.
(Other verbs may be chosen from earlier vocabularies.)
* The original ending was-thi, as in be^/\thi, gno^/\thi; but it became-ti by dissimilation, to avoid the double aspirate-the^-thi.
About the passive aorist stem: Vowel stems in the imperfect lengthen that vowel in the aorist passive, just as they did in the aorist stem: `e-time^-the^n`e-poie^-the^n`e-doulo^/-the^n.
About the passive aorist endings: The strong aorist forms drop the th of the ending, but are otherwise the same (see below under ko/pto^).
The ending of the Aorist Passive are very exceptional. All are active (!) endings added to a passive stem.
The endings of the present and past Conjunctives are thematic endings that contract with the epsilon of the. These contracted endings are the endings used in as the whole forms of the Subjunctive and Optative of the verb `ei/\nai above (itself a strong aorist active), and may be easy remembered by them.
The use of active endings in the aorist passive causes the strong aorist passive to resemble these strong aorist actives:
strong aorist passive
strong (root) aorist active
ko/pto^
`eimi/
bai/no^
gigno^/sko^
didra/sko^
phu^/o^
infinitive
kope^/\nai
`ei/\nai
be^/\nai
gno^/\nai
participle
kopei/s
`o^/\n
ba^/\s
gnou/s
imperative
ko/pe^thi
`i/sthi
be^/\thi
gno^/\thi
indic past
`eko/pe^n
`e^/\n
`e/be^n
`e/gno^n
`e/dra^n
`e/phu^n
conj pres
ko/pto^
`o^/\
bo^/\
gno^/\
dro^/\
phu^/o^
conj past
koptei/e^n
`ei/e^n
bai/e^n
gnoi/e^n
drai/e^n
SYNTAX RULE, 18.--Compound negatives following a simple negative strengthen it, as: `oukh hora^i/\ `oudei/s `oudepo^/pote 'no one ever sees at all' (the simple negative must be separated from the rest). If the order be reversed, two negatives cancel, as: `oudei\s `oukh hora^i/\ 'no one fails to see'.
SYNTAX RULE, 19.-- Verbs implying knowledge or perception take a participle in the predicate instead of an infinitive: `oi/\da `o^/n 'I know that I am', `oi/\da s' `o/nta 'I know that you are'.
Such are: `aistha/nomai 'percive', `akou/o^ 'hear', `euri/skho^ 'find', mantha/no^ 'learn', me/mne^mai 'remember', `oi/\da 'know', horo^/\ 'see'.
VOCABULARY
VERBS
`apo-thne^i/sko^-thanou/\mai,`ap-e/thanon, die
bou/lomaiboule^/somai, wish
gigno^/sko^gno^/somai, recognise, learn to know
di/do^mido^/so^,`e/do^ka, (do/s,do^/\,doi/e^n,dou/\nai,dou/s), give
du/namai [ dune^/somai (conjugated du/ne^i,du/natai, etc., like ti/themai, but with the root-a all through) ] be able
Aor. of the^i/sko^. See Syntax Rule, 19
Aor. Pass. of thu/o^, `etu/the^n for `ethu/the^n to avoid the double aspirate.
Fut. Infin. of di/do^mi.
Aor. Infin. of di/do^mi.
k`anokhle^/seis = (kai/ + `eno/khle^sis) "and annoying things". katalei/psas = aorist part. of katalei/pein. sitou/mene = part. vocative of site/ein.
EXERCISE
Conjugate the tenses of the Aorist and Future Passive from `epitimo^/\, thrapeu/o^, pei/tho^, plouto^/\, sito^/\, ta/tto^, pho^no^/\.
CONVERSATION LESSON
Conversation upon the reading lesson, e.g. ti/ `e/khei to\ ploutei/\n?sumphora\s polla\s `e/khei to\ ploutei/\n. ti/ gi/gnetai thano/ntos tou/\ plousi/ou?heuri/skein thano/ntos tou/\ plousi/ou. ti/ni katalei/psei te^\n `ousi/an?`a/llois katalei/psei te^\n `ousi/an. pro\s ti/?pro\s truphe^/n. ti/ suneta/ksato ho Skholastiko/s?suneta/ksato noso^/\n. poi/\o/s tis `estin ho stratio^/te^s?hieroi/\on `estin ho stratio^/te^s. po/te `a/llos sumpatho^/\ soi?sumpathei/\ patho^/\n soi.
Reduplication has three forms:--
1) If the stems begin with a consonant (except r), followed by a vowel or by l, m, n, r (liquids and nasals), prefix the first consonant with e, adding the proper endings.
lu/-o^le/-lu-ka thrau/-o^te/-thrau-ka
N.B.--Aspirates (kh, th, ph) are reduplicated by their unvoiced sounds, k,t,p.
2) If the stem begins with two or more consonants (except as above), or with a double consonant (ts, ks, ps), or with r, prefix `e (doubling the r).
3) If the stem begins with a vowel, augment as for the imperfect:--
`a/ggel-lo^`e^/ggel-ka
ACTIVE
Perfect
Pluperfect
Sing. 1.
le/-lu-ka
`e-le-lu/-ke^
2.
le/-lu-ka-s
`e-le-lu/-ke^-s
3.
le/-lu-ke(n)
`e-le-lu/-kei(n)
Dual 2.
le-lu/-ka-ton
`e-le-lu/-kei-ton
3.
le-lu/-ka-ton
`e-le-lu-kei/te^n
Plur. 1.
le-lu/-ka-men
`e-le-lu/-kei-men
2.
le-lu/-ka-te
`e-le-lu/-kei-te
3.
le-lu/-ka^si(n)
`e-le-lu/-ke-san,-kei-san
SUBJUNCTIVE
lelu/ko^,-ke^is, etc.
OPTATIVE
lelu/koimi,-ois, etc.
INFINITIVE
leluke/nai
PARTICIPLE
leluko^/s
Contacted verbs lengthen the stem-character as for future and aorist (a-stems and e-stems have e^, o-stems o^): te-ti/me^-kape-poi/e^-kade-dou/lo^-ka
There are two Perfects, as two Aorist: one, called the Strong or Second Perfect, being formed straight from the Strong Root. Very few verbs have both, and when they do, the first perfect is transitive and the strong perfect is intransitive. gi/gnomai(become): ge/-gon-a, ge/gonas, etc. gego/na^si(n).
PERFECT PARTICIPLE ACTIVE
stem
lelukot
lelukuia
lelukot
M.
F.
N.
Sing. N.
leluko^/s
lelukui/\a
leluko/s
A.
leluko/ta
lelukui/\an
leluko/s
G.
leluko/tos
lelukui/a^s
leluko/tos
D.
leluko/ti
lelukui/a^i
leluko/ti
Dual N.A.
leluko/te
lelukui/a^
leluko/te
G.D.
leluko/toin
lelukui/ain
leluko/toin
Plur. N.
leluko/tes
lelukui/\ai
leluko/ta
A.
leluko/tas
lelukui/a^s
leluko/ta
G.
leluko/to^n
lelukuio^/\n
leluko/to^n
D.
leluko/si(n)
lelukui/ais
leluko/si(n)
The principal parts of a Verb are: Present, Future, Aorist, and Perfect-- lu^/o^, lu^/so^, `e/lu^sa, le/luka.
The paradigm of a given tense consists of the first form of each mood in the conjugate scheme, as: `e/lusa, lu^/\son, lu/so^, lu/saimi, lu^/\sai, lu/sas. These are also called Cognate Forms.
The declension of other stems is similar; the genitive case will show whether the vowel be long or short. Thus:
ho the^/r 'beast', the^ro/s, the^rsi/(n)--(r-stem).
ho hre^/to^r, 'orator', hre^/toros, hre^/torsi(n)--(r-stem).
ho ha/ls 'salt', halo/s, halsi/(n),--(the only l-stem).
ho, he^ `ai/ks 'goat', `aigo/s, `aiksi/(n)--(gluttural stem).
ho gu/ps 'vulture', gu^po/s, gu^psi/(n)--(labial stem).
ho, he^ phuga/s 'fugitive', phuga/dos, phuga/si(n)--(dental stem).
ho the^/s 'serf', the^to/s, the^si/(n)--(dental stem).
Like this are declined all the abstract nouns in -te^s formed from adjectives: as he^ khre^sto/te^s 'honesty', khre^sto/te^tos.
IRREGULAR NOUNS (THIRD DECLENSION)
N.
TSeu/s, cp. lup-piter (for Ious-)
V.
TSeu/\
A.
Di/a
G.
Dio/s
D.
Di+i/
he^ nau/\s, 'ship' stem nau
he^ grau/\s, 'old woman' stem grau
he^ gune^/, 'woman' stem gunaik
Sing. N.
nau/\s
grau/\s
gune^/
V.
nau/\
grau/\
gu/nai
A.
nau/\n
grau/\n
gunai/\ka
G.
neo^/s
gra^o/s
gunaiko/s
D.
ne^+i/
grai/
gunaiki/
Du. N.V.A.
ne^/\e
gra^/\e
gunai/\ke
G.D.
neoi/\n
gra^oi/\n
gunaikoi/\n
Plur. N.V.
ne^/\s
gra^/\es
gunai/\kes
A.
nau/\s
grau/\s
gunai/\kas
G.
neo^/\n
gra^o^/\n
gunaiko^/\n
D.
nausi/(n)
grausi/(n)
gunaiksi/(n)
bou/\s, 'ox, 'cow' stem bou
Sing. N.
bou/\s
V.
bou/
A.
bou/\n
G.
boo/s
D.
bo+i/
Dual N.V.A.
bo/e
G.D.
booi/\n
Plur. N.
bo/es
V.
bo/es
A.
bou/\s
G.
boo^/\n
D.
bousi/(n)
SPECIAL RULE FOR ACCENTS.--In monosyllables of the third declension, the final is accented in gen. and dat. cases.
SYNTAX RULE, 20.The Gnomic Aorist.Because of the general nature of the Aorist aspect, the past aorist indicative (not the present imperfect indicative) is used to express habit or general rule. ("Mighty oaks from tiny acorns grow" would not use blasta/nousin but rather strong aorist `e/blastson
gunai/\ka is the accusative form of gune^/, mistress, lady `age/le^n d' ho/po^s (when this conjuction is at the end of the clause it means that, in order that) "and Chloe is a witness that I... " kata\ kairo/n = from time to time (idiom.). boe^/ = war-cry `e^khe^/n (`e^khe^/) = sound, noise, echo
†
The subj. and opt., if wanted, are formed by combining the
participle with the subj. and opt. of `eimi/ ('to be'):—
lelume/nos `o^/\, lelume/noi `o^/\sin, lelume/nos `ei/e^n, etc.
Contracted stems have the same endings: teti^/me^-mai,
pepoi/e^-maidedou/o^-mai.
Finally, Some verbs form a future perfect middle passive from this stem
e.g.: lelu^/somai
"I shall have loosed for myself" or "I shall have been loosed",
conjugated like lu^/somai.
THIRD DECLENSION: SOME IRREGULAR NOUNS
ho pate^/r, (father) stem pater,patr
ho `ane^/r, 'man' stem `a^ner,andr
Sing. Ν.
pate^/r
`ane^/r
V.
pa/ter
`a/ner
Α.
pate/ra
`a/ndra
G.
patro/s
`andro/s
D.
patri/
`andri/
Dual N.V.A.
pate/re
`a/ndre
G.D.
pate/roin
`androi/\n
Plur. Ν.V.
pate/res
`a/ndres
Α.
pate/ras
`a/ndras
G.
pate/ro^n
`andro^/n
D.
patra/si(n)
`andra/si(n)
Like pate^/r are declined me^/te^r 'mother', thugate^/r 'daughter', gaste^/r 'stomach'.
These accent oxytone in the gen. and dat. singular; `ane^/r in all numbers, like the monosyllables.
THE IRREGULAR VERBS `eimi/ 'BE' AND `ei/\mi 'GO'
The conjugation of `eimi/ 'be' has already been given, except the
Future: `e/somai, `e/se^i, `e/stai, `e/sesthon, `e/sesthon, `eso/metha, `e/sesthe, `e/sontai.
Optative: `esoi/me^n, `e/soio, etc.
`ei/\mi 'go' is used in a future sense;
for the present tense use `e/rkhomai.
imperative
indic. pres (future)
indic. past
conj. pres
conj. past
1 sing
`ei/\-mi
`e^i/\-a
`i/-o^
`i/-oimi
2
`i/-thi
`ei/\
`e^i/\-eistha
`i/-e^is
`i/-ois
3
`i/-to^
`ei-si(n)
`e^i/\-ei(n)
`i/-e^is
`i/-oi
2 dual
`i/-ton
`i/-ton
`e^i/\-ton
`i/-e^ton
`i/-oiton
3
`i/-to^n
`i/-ton
`e^i/-te^n
`i/-e^ton
`i-oi/te^n
1 plur
`i/-men
`e^i/\-men
`i/-o^men
`i/-oimen
2
`i/-te
`i/-te
`e^i/\-te
`i/-e^te
`i/-oite
3
`i-o/-nto^n
`i/-a^si(n)
`e^i/\-san
`i/-o^si(n)
`i/-oien
infinitive
`i-e/nai
participle
`i-o^/n,`i-ou/\sa,`i-o/n
EXERCISE - Form and conjugate the perfect passive tenses of:
pau/o^, check
poreu/o^, transport
pisteu/o^, trust
paideu/o^, teach
keleu/o^, bid
ko^lu/o^, hinder
kle^i/o^, shut
thu/o^, sacrifice
phuteu/o^, plant
hiketeu/o^, pray
SYNTAX RULE, 21: (cp. 19).—The participle, used to complete the sense with verbs of knowing and feeling (e.g. `oi/\da `o^/n 'I know that I am.'), is also used to complete the sense of these other verbs:
tugkha/no^ 'I chance', `e/thukhon `o^/n 'I chanced to be'
phtha/no^, 'I anticipate', phtha/nei `e/ltho^n 'he comes in first'
heuri/sko^ 'I find'
SYNTAX RULE, 22.—Verbs of hindering, forbidding, and the like, generally take me^/ with the dependent infinitive, as:
`apei/\on me^\ `elthei/\n 'I told him not to come.'
VOCABULARY
VERBS
`a/gkho^ [`a/gkso^] throttle
`ap-apagoreuo^/ [,-so^,`apei/\pon] forbid
`apo-de^me/o^ be away or abroad
`aph-eime/nos [ perf. part. pass of `aphi/e^mi ] let go
`aph-aire/o^ [,haire/o^, haire^/so^, hei/\lon, he^i/re^ka] carry off
`a/ptein (this verb used with a genitive substantive means "hold of"),`aptesthai `auto^/\n, "to hold them". pro\s tou/tois = besides this (idiom.). `eleuthe/ra = a freed-woman, a married-woman houtosi/ = hou/\tos
CONVERSATION LESSON
Questions and answers on the story. It may be then told as by the old woman, or by Theophemus, or by a servant; in the past tense also.
CONSONANTAL VERB-STEMS
Hitherto we have had to do chiefly with verbs which add their endings to vowel-stems.
But when the stems end in a consonant, athematic endings require an assimilation of the two to each other.
The rule is -- Aspirated and Voiced Sounds must not come together;
and that an aspirate makes both these kinds like itself.
Thus we have :— le/g-o^lek-to/s`ele/kh-the^n bla/b-e^bla/p-to^`ebla/ph-the^n `ok-to^/ho/g-dooshep-ta/he/b-domos
Before mu, e.g. in the -mai or -menos ending:— bla/b-e^be/blam-mai tup-to^tetum-mai ple/k-o^pe/pleg-mai
Dentals are dropped before kappa and sigma, e.g. the aorist and perfect -sa and -ka: pith-: pei/th-o^pei/-so^pe/pei-ka
Before other consonants dentals become sigma:— pith-: pis-to/s`epei/s-the^npe/peis-mai
Nasals are assimilated partially to labials and gutturals, wholly to liquids :— `em-ba/llo^`eg-kalo^/ sul-lamba/no^sur-ra/pto^
Gutturals of all types + sigma become ksi :— leg-o^le/kso^, πλέκω pλέξω, bre/kh-o^bre/kso^
Likewise, all Labials + sigma become psi :- blab-bla/pso^, tre/p-o^tre/pso^
Nasal and liquid stems, as those in —ts-, have special rules.
And beyond all this, there are irregularities, which must be learnt as they come.
PERFECT ACTIVE.— Guttural * and labial stems often aspirate the stem final in the perfect.
The following will show the types :—
These 3rd person plural forms of consonantal stems are formed by adding `eisi/(n) or `e^/\san to the participle. This is done because the regular form with pepei/thntai would force a nu after a consonant, which regularly changes the nu to short alpha: pepei/thatai. But this looks like a singular form, and so it dropped out of use and pepeisme/noi `e^/\san replaced it.
* Note the persistent accent in infinitive and participle!
VERBS IN-mi (continues what was begun in Chapter 9)
Past Imperfect Indicative Active
Athematic verbs should have a complete strong (root) aorist, but the most common ones show irregularities.
1. These three -- ti/the^mi, di/do^mi, hi/e^mi -- have a mixed aorist. The dual and plural are strong (as expected), but the singular forms a weak aorist, and it uses the-ka- infix instead of the-sa-.
Thus `e/the^-ka, `e/the^-ka-s, he/the^-k-e(n), `e/the-ton ... `e/the-san `e/do^-ka, `e/do^-ka-s, `e/do^-k-e(n), he/do-ton ... `e/do-san `e^/\-ka, `e^\-ka-s, he^/\-k-e, `ei/\-ton ... hei/\-san
2. This one -- hi/ste^mi has both a complete weak aorist with a transitive meaning,
and a complete strong aorist with an intransitive meaning: `e/ste^-sa... 'I set something (up)', `e/ste^-n... 'I stood'
* Note the irregular imperative and the variation of long-alpha with eta.
The sequence of tenses for infinitives and participles
Often you have to translate an infinitive or participle as a clause. Since the finite verb of clauses has time but the original infinitive or participle does not, you need to know how to derive a time (past, present, or future) for your translations. Here are the general rules:
If the aspect of the infinitive/participle is...
imperfective, then the time of that infinitive/participle translated as an indicative is equal to that of the main verb
if the aspect of the infinitive/participle is aorist, then the time of that infinitive/participle translated as an indicative is before that of the main verb
if the aspect of the infinitive/participle is perfect, then the time of that infinitive/participle's auxiliary "have" is the same as that of the main verb
if the aspect of the infinitive/participle is future, then the time of that infinitive/participle translated as an indicative is after that of the main verb
THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS IN -eus
A large class of nouns denoting agent ends in -eus. basileu/s (stem basileu-) 'king'
Sing.N.
basileu/s
V.
basileu/
Α.
basile/a^/
G.
basile/o^s
D.
basilei/
Dual Ν.V.Α.
basilei/
G.D
basile/oin
Plur. N.V.
basile^/s
Α.
basile/a^/s
G.
basile/o^n
D.
basileu/si(n)
EXERCISE - Decline these like basileu/s: khalkeu/s 'smith',
hippeu/s 'horseman/knight', hiereu/s 'priest', goneu/s 'parent'
THIRD DECLENSION ADJECTIVE me/gas me/gas (stems megalo-, megala^-) 'great'
masculine
neuter
feminine
Sing.N.
me/gas
me/ga
mega/le^
V.
me/ga
me/ga
mega/le^
Α.
me/gan
me/ga
mega/le^n
G.
mega/lou
mega/lou
mega/le^s
D.
mega/lo/i
mega/lo/i
mega/le/i
and so forth only with megalo-, megala^-
SYNTAX RULE, 23.— Verbs of remembering and forgetting take the genitive, as in Latin
IRREGULAR ALPHA CONTRACTIONS IN ETA:
A few common contracted verbs in a/o^; conjugate with e^ wherever the others have a^:
as tso^/\, tse^i/\s, tse^i/\ 'I live', etc. peino^/\ 'I am hungry' dipso^/\ 'I am thirsty' khro^/\mai, khre^i/\, khre^/\tai 'use' (dat)
VERBS IN -numi
A few Verbs end in -numi. These are conjugated thus :—
Imperfect Pres: dei/knu^mi, -nu^s, -nu^/\si(n), -nuton, .numen, -nute, -n+u/ᾰsi(n).
The infix -nu- runs through the imperfect aspect:
Imperfect Past. `edei/knu^/\n, -nu^/\s, -nu^/\, »nuton . . . `edei/knusan
Imperative. dei/knu^/\, psu/to^
Subj. deiknu/o^, -e^s etc.
Opt. deiknu/oimi
Infin. deiknu/nai
Part. deikn+u^/\s
SYNTAX RULE, 24.—As has been explained (Syntax Rule #11),
general expressions are made by adding `a/n to a relative, and putting the verb in the subjunctive mood.
In historic sequence the `a/n may be dropped, the verb becoming optative.
Thus the expression for indefiniteness in the past (indefinite time, place, number, etc.) is a Relative with the Optative.
`ei ge/noito = 'if ever it happened' (present/future `ea\n ge/ne^tai). ho/stis `e/lthoi = 'whoever came' (pres/fut ho\s `a\n `e/lthe^i). hopo/t' `i/doi = 'whenever he saw' (pres/fut hopo/tan `i/de^i).
SYNTAX RULE, 25.— ho^/ste is either conjunction or adverb.
As an adverb, it is followed by infinitive; as a conjunction, it does not affect the construction. Thus :—
hou/to^s kalo\s `e^/\n `o^/ste pa/ntas thauma/tsein 'he was so beautiful that all admired [him]' (natural result). hou/to^s kalo\s `e^/\n ho^/ste pa/ntes `ethau/matson 'he was so beautiful that all admired [him]' (fact).
The infinitive is used when the result is natural or to be expected.
VOCABULARY
VERBS
`an-a/pto^ kindle
`anasta/s [ aor.part. act. of `an-i/ste^mi ] rising
katheude^/sousa ho^s to\ paidi/on (Future participles together with conj. ho^s are usually translated with "in order" + infinitive), "in order to (make) the child sleep" pro/s he^me/ran = near day (idiom.)
CONVERSATION LESSON
Question and answer on the above.
An exercise may now be made on the acts of daily life,
for which some words have been given in Exercise.
(first and second person forms)
TEACHER: Ka/role, `a/noikson te^\n thuri/da!ti/ dra^i/\s? CHARLES: (speaking as he does it) `anoi/gnumi (`e^\ `anoi/go^) te^\n thuri/da. TEACHER: ti/ `e/drasas? CHARLES: `ane/o^iksa te^\n thuri/da. (third person forms)
TEACHER: Goulie/lme, ti/ `e/drasen ho Ka/rolos? WILLIAM: `ane/o^ikse te^\n thuri/da ho Ka/rolos. (reported speech in third person)
TEACHER: Ku/rille, ti/ phe^si/n ho Goulie/lmos? CYRIL: `anoi/\ksai (`e^\ ho/ti `ane/o^iksen) te^\n thuri/da phe^si\ to\n Ka/rolon.
And so on with kle^i/\son te^\n thu/ran, katabe^/\thi (kata/ba) kata\ te^/\s kli/makos kai\ phe/re moi to\ bibli/on, etc ti/ dra/seis? poi/\ poreu/se^i?
and other questions at discretion.
The following verses (in iambic hexameter) taken from a story of a banquet of food-lovers, may be found useful as material for similar conversations,
in conjunction with wall-pictures of a domestic kind.
LIQUID and NASAL VERB STEMS.—
Verbs with liquid and nasal stems shorten the stem vowel (if possible)
and have a contracted ending in the Future Active and Middle.
The Weak or First Aorist has a long vowel or diphthong and no -s—.
Note the accents.
phai/n-o^
phanho^
`e/-phe^n-a
phan-ou/mai
`e-phe^n-a/me^n
kri/n-o^
krin-ho^
`e/-kri^/n-a
krin-ou/mai
`e-kri^/n-a/me^n
`agge/ll-o^
`aggel-ho^
`e^/-ggeil-a
`aggel-ou/mai
`e^ngngeil-a/me^n
phthei/r-o^
phther-o^/
he/-phtheir-a
phthero^u^/mai
`e-phtheir-a/me^n
ACTIVE
Indicative
Optative
Sg.1.
phano^/\
phanoi/e^n
2.
phanei/\s
phanoi/e^s
3.
phanei/\
phanoi/e^
Du.2.
phanei/\ton
phanoi/\ton
3.
phanei/\ton
phanoi/te^n
Pl.1.
phanou/\meu
phanoi/\men
2.
phanei/\te
phanoi/\te
3.
phanou/\si(n)
phanoi/\en
Infinitive
phanei/\n
Participle
phano^/n,phanou/\sa,phanou/\n,phanou/\nta,etc.
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
Indicative
Optative
Sg.1.
phanou/\mai
phanoi/me^n
2.
phanei/\
phanoi/\o
3.
phanei/\tai
phanoi/\to
Du.2.
phanei/\sthon
phanoi/\sthon
3.
phanei/\sthon
phanoi/sthe^n
Pl.1.
phanou/metha
phanoi/metha
2.
phanei/\sthe
phanoi/\sthe
3.
phanou/\ntai
phanoi/\nto
Infinitive
phanei/\sthai
Participle
phanou/menos
EXERCISE - Conjugate in the tenses from the verbs also given above;
and also from
Second Type of Comparison (most of the words are irregular in some way) :—
positive
comparative
superlative
he^du/s
he^di/o^n
he^/distos
`aiskhro/s
`aiskhi/o^n
`ai/skhistos
`agatho/s
belti/o^n
be/ltistos
kako/s
kaki/o^n
ka/kistos
kalo/s
kalli/o^n
ka/llistos
polu/s
plei/o^n
plei/\stos
me/gas
mei/tso^n
me/gistos
rha^i/dios
rha^i/o^n
rha^i/\stos
EXERCISE - Decline the comparatives in this list
A few common Verbs make their past imperfect with initial augment `ei- instead of the expected `e-: `e/kho^ `ei/\khon, he/lko^ hei/\lkon (also aorist: `ei/lkusa).
SYNTAX RULE, 26.—Wishes referring to present or past time are expressed by
`ei/the + Past Indicative Imperfect for present time.
`ei/the + Past Indicative Aorist for past time.
`ei/th' `e^/\n, `ei/th' `ege/nou
(ho^s)`o^/phelon (-es, -en, etc.) with Imperfect Infinitive for present time.
(ho^s)`o^/phelon (-es, -en, etc.) with Aorist Infinitive for past time.
After the usual question and answer an exercise may be made up in class on a Day in the Country,
or a Picnic, or a hunt;
to be written out afterwards as home work.
The coinage may also be taught by the following phrases:
to\ me\n ta/lanton `e/khei hekse^/konta mna^/\s,he^ de\ mna^/\ drakhma\s hekato/n, he^ de\ drakhme^\ `obolou\s etc.
QUESTIONS -- po/ston me/ros `esti drakhme^/\s ho `obolo/s etc.
Verbs in -atso^ and -otso^ drop the dental before sigma or kappa, and it becomes sigma before theta or mu. phra/tso^, phra/so^, `e/phrasa, pe/phraka, `ephra/sthe^n, pe/phrasmai
Verbs in -itso^ form the future -io^/\ (contracted),
conjugated like phano^/\:--
nomi/tso^, nomio^/\ (nomioi/e^n, nomiei/\n, nomio^/\n), but `eno/misa, etc.
CONTRACTED VERB STEMS.—
The subjunctive and optative are thus formed .—
epsilon-stems
Subj. poio^/\, poie^i/\s, poie^i/\, etc.
Opt. poioi/e^n, poioi/e^s, etc.
omicron-stems
Subj. hoi/\de^lo^/\, de^loi/\s, de^loi/\, de^lo^/\ton, etc. with o^ Opt. de^loi/e^n, de^loi/e^s, etc.
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
alpha-stems
Subj. timo^/\mai, tima^i/\, like indicative
Opt. timo^i/me^n, timo^i/\o, etc.
epsilon-stems
Subj. po/io^/\miio^ poie^i/\, etc.
Opt. poioi/me^n, poioi/\o, etc.
omicron-stems
Subj. de^lo^/\mai, de^loi/\, de^lo^/\tai, etc. with o^ Opt. de^loi/me^n, de^loi/\o, etc.
ta/las 'wretched' and me/las 'black' are thus declined :—
M.
F.
N.
Sing.N.V.
ta/la^/s
ta/laina
ta/lan
Α.
ta/lan
ta/lainan
ta/lan
G.
ta/lanos
talai/ne^s
ta/lanos
D.
ta/lani
talai/ne^i
ta/lani
Dual.N.V.A
ta/lane
talai/na^/
ta/lane
G.D.
tala/noin
talai/nain
tala/noin
Plur.N.V.
ta/lanes
ta/lainai
ta/lana
Α.
ta/lanas
talai/na^/s
ta/lana
G.
tala/no^n
talaino^/n
tala/no^n
D.
ta/lasi(n)
talai/nais
ta/lasi(n)
Comparison: ta/las, tala/nteros, tala/ntatos
EXERCISE -
(1) Conjugate the future act. and mid. of komi/tso^ 'carry', 'convey', phronti/tso^ 'think.'
(2) Conjugate the conjunctives, imperfective aspect in act and mid-pass of any verbs taken from the vocabularies.
SYNTAX RULE, 27.— Verbs of saying which imply feeling of any kind
tend to take me^/ as their negative when an infinitive follows.
Otherwise the negative of the Recta remains.
Verbs of swearing always have me^/ as the negative of the thing sworn.
SYNTAX RULE, 28.-- A verbal notion may be paraphrased by the verbal noun with
poie/omai as "lo/gous poiou/\mai" = "le/go^"
(The active poie/o^, if used, has always a different sense.)
Learn the Middle and Passive of the verbs in -mi.
The Grammar should then be revised from the tables at the end of the book,
whilst the pieces in the accompanying Greek Boy Reader for chapter 20 (2 pages) and chapter 21 (50 extra pages) and the appendix (10 pages) are being read day by day.
